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History timelines

Teaching resources


Our history section covers an ever expanding list of uniquely designed resources, which are proven to be effective for students of all abilities.

The resources are created for a specific exam board, rather than the generic books currently in the market.

Most of the resources include an extensive set of notes, specific to the exam board with relevant exercises to reinforce knowledge and understanding in addition to exam style questions.

Our format lays out information in a specific way allowing students to easily access the information they need when , is linked to the exam questions e.g. causes and consequences.

Furthermore for many topics we have included a list of recommended media, including our own youtube channel: GCSE History.

The combination of resources and the website should provide all the materials needed for successful, challenging lessons.

Supporting materials


Timelines
Timelines covering the key events for each topic

Online

Resources online including websites and youtube clips

Books
Recommended reads that may be of use for students in various areas of business

Media
Films and documentaries used in their entirety or part to accompany course materials

Field Trips
Some suggestions for field trips in the UK.

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www.gcsehistory.uk
Check out the history specific site.
Included are historical timelines.

AQA GCSE History

  • Russia, 1894-1945: Timeline

    Russia, 1894-1945: Timeline



    Russia in 1894


    Russia in 1900 was a largely agricultural society, ruled by a Tsar, who had almost total power. Most people lived in poverty.

    Russian society
    Farming
    Over 85% of Russians were farmers. Most were poor.(peasants)
    Industry
    Russia was behind most of Europe and had few factories. By 1914, Russia had railways and more factories.

    People
    Russia is a huge country, with many ethnic groups. Only half the people spoke Russian.
    Most people were Christian, plus some Muslims and Jews.
    Russian society
    RULING CLASS 1%
    Royal Family = very rich
    UPPER CLASS 12%
    Military officers, top govt. officials, landowners
    BUSINESSMEN 2%
    Bankers, traders, business owners (Capitalist)
    FACTORY WORKERS 5%
    Very poor, worked long hours for low wages, often short of food
    PEASANTS 80%
    Farmers were very poor, often hungry. Many farmers owed money
    to the landowners.
    Some went to the cities to find work.


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    Tsar Nicholas II
    Total power over everything and everybody - made all the laws
    Civil Service
    Minister in charge of each department. Carried out the Tsar's laws.
    Collected taxes.
    Army
    Tsar was head of the army - over 2 million soldiers. They helped the police
    Secret Police (Okhrana)
    Arrested people who were critical of the Tsar

    1894

    Social Democratic Workers' Party


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    Karl Marx

    Opposition to the Tsar
    Social Democrats
    followed the ideas of Karl Marx.
    They were against
    capitalists: businessmen, landowners and thought the poor workers will rise up against them in a revolution
    Everything will then be shared out equally - no more very rich and very poor.
    The factories, businesses, banks etc. controlled by the govt on behalf of the people.



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    Lenin

    Social Democrats split into two groups:
    Bolsheviks (Lenin)
    . small group who would take power for the poor workers
    Mensheviks
    . wanted a large group of supporters for large revolution
    . join with other groups

    Other groups who opposed the Tsar
    Liberals
    Keep the Tsar but chose politicians to make laws - no revolution
    Social Revolutionnaires
    Take land away from the landowners and Chursh and give to the poor.

    Use violence to take the land if necessary

    1898

    War with Japan


    War with Japan
    1904-5 war with Japan for control of Korea & Manchuria
    Tsar promised easy victory, but lost very badly

    Consequences
    . Tsar became more unpopular
    . Prices for food increased &
    people lost their jobs

    1904

    Rasputin


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    Rasputin

    Rasputin
    Holy Man
    Rasputin claimed to be a holy man with special powers.
    Stopped the bleeding of Alexi, the Tsar's son.

    Influence on the Tsar
    Rasputin became an advisor to the Tsar.
    Was hated by many for be
    ing a drinker and womaniser and being from a 'low class'.
    Became more powerful after Stolypin died.
    People disliked the Tsar because of Rasputin.

    1905

    Bloody Sunday


    Bloody Sunday
    In January 1905 about 200,000 unarmed workers marched to the Tsar's palace, to demand better
    living conditions, an end to the war and elections.
    Soldiers fired on the demonstrators and killed 500.
    Consequences
    . People not trust the Tsar
    . support for revolutionaries increased
    . there were more protests & riots

    January 1905

    1905 revolution


    Timeline
    Jan:
    Factory workers strikes in St. Petersburg
    Feb: Tsar's uncle killed in Moscow
    March: Peasants kill landlords
    May: Professionals (doctors, lawyers) want changes
    June: Sailors from the battleship 'Potemkin' mutiny
    Sept: Defeat to Japan in war
    Oct: All workers stopped work.
    Tsar 'October manifesto'

    Many workers return to work
    Dec: Some workers continue protests
    1906: Tsar crushes last of the protesters
    Why was the revolution unsuccessful?
    . soldiers were loyal to the Tsar & helped stop the protests
    . manifesto many people liked theTsar's Manifesto
    . opposition
    was not united
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    February 1905

    Tsar's manifesto


    Tsar's Manifesto
    . a Duma elected by the people & to make all the laws
    . freedom of speech
    . can form political parties

    But:
    . the Duma was a failure
    . the Tsar dismissed the first two Dumas for wanting changes

    . the next Duma agreed with the Tsar

    October 1905

    Stolypin


    Stolypin
    Prime Minister
    1906 : wanted to improve people's lives
    . stop the protests

    Used 'carrot & stick'
    Reforms (carrot)
    . stop peasant payments for their freedom
    . help peasants buy their own land
    . health insurance for workers

    Stop the protests (stick)
    Protestors & revolutionaries were sent to prison or executed.
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    Consequences
    . less protests
    . some peasants became richer (kulaks) & provided more food for the workers in the cities
    . life a little better in the cities but still some protests
    Stolypin was killed in 1911

    1906

    World War I


    Consequences of WWI
    Russian army
    Success against Austria then a series of military defeats by the Germans at Tannenburg & Masurian Lakes.
    Loss of morale with 1 million killed, wounded or taken prisoner
    Tsar - in charge of Army and blamed for the defeats

    Russian home front
    Food shortages:
    . less food produced as men conscripted into army
    . food not getting to the cities

    . prices rose
    Fuel:
    . lack of coal for factories meant many closed
    . people lost their jobs & had no coal for heating
    Tsarina
    In charge of the country during WWI
    as Tsar took charge of the army
    Duma government
    . ignored by Tsarina, sacked ministers & replaced with 'friends'
    . government stopped working


    Rasputin
    . Tsarina took advice from Rasputin until his murder in 1916
    . Tsarina was German & became more unpopular
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    Problems: from WWI
    People hungry and cold = revolution?
    From wanting food & fuel, it became open hatred for the Tsar and Tsarina.
    Tsar ordered demonstrations to be stopped by force.

    1914-1917

    1917 Revolution


    Time line of events: March 1917

    7th: 20,000 steelworkers fall out with the bosses over pay and are locked out of the factory, other workers join them on strike

    8th: International Women's Day: women protest wanting bread to eat, workers join them

    10th: Half the workers go on strike and protest in Petrograd The Tsar orders the army to end the protests

    11th: Soldiers shoot protesters. The Tsar orders the Duma to stop meeting

    12th: Soldiers (mutiny) refuse to shoot the protesters Soldiers and workers set-up their own govt. (Soviet) The Duma sets up it's own 'Provisional Government'

    14th: Army generals tell the Tsar the army does not support him, they now support the workers

    15th: Tsar Nicholas resigns (abdicates), his brother does not want to be the new Tsar

    16th:
    End of the Romanov family ruling Russia

    March 1917

    Provisional government


    Provisional Government
    . Members of the Duma
    . Rule until people choose a group (assembly) to work out a new system of government
    Tsar abdicates
    . Tsar abdicates on 15 March
    . Hands over to his brother who refuses it
    Petrograd Soviet
    . A council of deputies representing the soldiers and workers
    . Many deputies were Mensheviks who wanted a revolution
    . Wanted to share power with the Provisional Government

    March 1917

    April Theses


    Lenin's April Theses
    - Bolshevik revolution
    1. end to the war
    2. land given to the peasants
    3. factories & banks owned by the state
    4. change to be communists


    Bolsheviks
    . Members from 26,000 to 2,000,000
    . Propaganda via newspapers 'Pravda'

    . Local committees in factories etc
    . Germans gave money to help

    . Formed private army 'Red Guards'
    Bolshevik slogans:

    'Peace, bread and land'
    Make peace with the Germans and end WWI
    Give the peasants land (to win their support)
    Solve the food shortages in the towns and cities


    'All power to the Soviets'

    April 1917

    Kerensky


    Events
    . Alexander Kerensky becomes Prime Minister of the Provisional Government until November

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    July 1917

    July Days


    Events
    . Failure of 'June Offensive' led to anger: workers, soldiers & sailors rioted
    . The Bolsheviks took part in riots


    Consequences
    . Government stopped riots
    . Bolsheviks arrested, Lenin fled to Finland, party struggling to function

    July 1917

    Kornilov Revolt


    Events
    . General Kornilov (Right wing Army Commander-in-Chief) tried to seize power
    . Prime Minister Kerensky asked the Bolsheviks to help fight against Kornilov, gave them weapons & released their leaders
    . The Bolsheviks persuaded Kornilov's troops to desert


    Consequences
    . Bolsheviks seen by many as heroes, Kerensky looked weaker
    . Won a majority in Petrograd Soviet
    . Became a well armed fighting force

    15 September 1917

    Petrograd


    Bolsheviks
    . Bolsheviks took over Moscow
    . Bolsheviks take control of Petrograd


    6 October 1917

    Lenin returns


    Lenin
    . Lenin returns from exile to begin the the Bolsheviks


    23 October 1917

    1917 Revolution


    6th: (evening)
    Bolshevik 'Red Guards' take over key roads, bridges, telephone exchange & power stations

    6 November 1917

    1917 Revolution


    7th: (morning) 'Red Guards' take over banks, govt. buildings & railway stations
    Kerensky left the city realising he had little support

    (evening) Russian Cruiser 'Aurora' fires on the Winter Palace
    Red Guards met little resistance, govt. ministers arrested


    7 November 1917

    1917 Revolution




    Lenin forms new Bolshevik government


    8 November 1917

    Bolshevik government


    Bolsheviks take control
    Government
    . Mensheviks left the govt. giving Bolsheviks total control
    . Elections for new Constituent Assembly put Bolsheviks in second place
    Revolution
    . Fighting continued across Russia inc. Moscow
    . Bolsheviks did not control all of Russia
    . Arrests & executions without trial, of anyone who spoke against the Bolsheviks

    November 1917

    Secret police


    Cheka
    . Set-up by Lenin in Dec 1917
    . HQ in 'Lubyanka' in Moscow
    . Arrested opposition
    . After assassination attempt on Lenin, launched 'Red Terror'
    . Arrests & executions without trial, of anyone who spoke against the Bolsheviks

    December 1917

    Consistent assembly


    Government
    . Elections for new Constituent Assembly put Bolsheviks in second place
    . In January 1918 Lenin sent in soldiers & closed down the Assembly with 100 demonstrators killed or wounded

    Bolshevik changes
    Newspapers
    . All non Bolshevik papers banned

    Land
    . All land taken off landowners (Tsar, Nobles, Church etc)
    . Committees divide land fairly

    Other
    . No titles e.g. Duke/Lord etc
    . Women equal to men
    . Banks taken over
    . Army officers elected
    . Divorce made easier
    Workers
    . Factory workers: 8 hour day/48 hour week
    . Committees run factories
    . Insurance for workers: injuries, illness & unemployment

    Peace with Germany
    . Peace at any price to keep support
    of army & Russian people
    . Treaty of Brest-Litovsk:
    lost 25% best farmland, 75% coal & iron ore deposits & 25% population


    sentiment_very_satisfied
    January 1918

    Civil War 1918 - 1921


    1918 Bolsheviks became the Communists
    Theory:
    Communist party represented the will of the people through the Soviets (councils of factory workers, peasants etc.)
    Reality: Communist Party controlled all aspects of the govt
    Communist Party Government
    Politburo: Senior party members who make important decisions
    Council of Peoples' Commissars led govt depts
    Secretariat: carries out Politburo decisions
    Central Executive Committee: 200 members elected by Soviets
    Central Committee: elected by Party runs the Party
    Party Congress: representatives of local Party branches

    Civil war: Reds v Whites


    REDS
    The Bolsheviks or Communists
    AIM: to stay in power to continue the revolution


    Greens
    Independent groups fighting for their own cause not to take over Russia
    WHITES
    The opponents of the Bolsheviks:Tsarists, Democrats, Landlords, other Socialists
    AIMS: each group something different, a dictator, a revolution
    or democracy

    Foreigners
    Britain, France, Japan & USA +sent supplies & forces.
    Stop revolutionary ideas spreading

    Czech Legion
    Czech ex prisoners of war, fell out with Bolsheviks.
    Took over railway, helped Whites & marched on Moscow

    sentiment_very_satisfied
    1918

    War communism


    Aim: introduce Lenin's ideas and ensure the Red army was supplied during the civil war

    Means of production (factories)
    . took control of factories & what they produced (Council of National Economy)
    . workers' committees not work so Lenin put managers in charge
    . strict discipline introduced in factories
    . strikes and protests
    made illegal
    Money
    . Government printed money to pay for war causing hyper inflation
    . Money became worthless (worth 1% of its 1917 value)
    . People often paid in food & bartering
    became common

    Food
    . Food rationed in the cities: as low as 200 grams of bread a day
    . Ration cards only if you were working
    Countryside / peasants
    . peasants not want to sell surplus, so the Cheka took it off them
    . punishment for any peasants found hoarding food or selling it at a profit
    . led to a struggle between peasants and communists
    . peasants produced less as any surplus was taken away
    Terror
    . The Cheka's role became more and more important
    . 'Red Terror' saw people arrested, imprisoned & shot without trial
    . Many people thought things were as bad or worse than under the Tsar

    Result: . Production of everything fell dramatically . Famine struck in 1921 - aid was sent from around the world inc. USA

    1918

    Reds victory in Civil War


    Reasons the Reds (Communists) won the Civil war


    Leadership - Trotsky
    . Red Army with professional officers
    . motivated soldiers (rewards + punishments)
    . excellent military tactics


    War Communism
    . kept soldiers supplied with food & weapons
    White disunity
    . no strong leader
    . little coordination
    . poor communication
    . different armies
    fighting individually
    . groups often fell out with each other
    . Allies withdrew forces in 1919
    . little support in many areas of Russia
    Popularity
    . changes made by Bolsheviks made them popular with peasants & factory workers
    CHEKA
    . punished anyone who helped Whites
    . forced peasants to hand over food

    1921

    Lenin's New Economic Policy


    Aim: improve the economy after the failures of War communism

    Peasants
    . Peasants could sell any surplus after giving a certain amount to the govt.
    Business
    . Traders could buy & sell & keep the profit
    . Factories making consumer goods returned to owners who were allowed to make a profit
    Large industry
    . Stay under govt control, some private selling allowed
    Foreign trade
    . Lenin encouraged trade with the West: Russian oil for western industrial goods
    Electrification
    . Electrification of Russia - network of power stations to power modern industry
    Results
    . Improved modernisation of Russia, better living standards but unemployment high
    . Some peasants got rich, most remained poor
    . Many communist disliked the profit making & resented the businessmen making large profits
    Life under Lenin
    Education

    Education was a priority for communists. They built lots of schools & launched a massive literacy programme across the country. carried out by members of the Young Communist League (Komsomol).
    Communist propaganda went into the countryside via posters, films etc
    Religion
    Communists saw religion as a con to get people to accept poor conditions in the hope of going to heaven. Teaching religion was banned to under 15 year olds.
    Some churches were closed.
    Equality
    Ranks & titles were abolished
    Women treated equally
    Divorce made easier
    Abortion more available
    Arts
    Experimentation was encouraged

    Art was with a practical purpose
    There was equality in the arts

    Results:
    . Improved modernisation of Russia, better living standards but unemployment high
    . Some peasants got rich, most remained poor
    . Many communists disliked the profit making & resented the businessmen making large profits


    1921

    Kronstradt rebellion


    Opposition to Lenin's policies
    Workers' Opposition
    . wanted higher wages
    . better living conditions
    . a stop to Cheka arrests
    Wanted " Soviets without Communist"
    Kronstadt Sailors
    . uprising at their naval base outside Petrograd
    . The 'Red Kronstadters' had fought with the Bolsheviks in 1917
    . life under communists become
    unbearable they wanted:
    . freedom of speech & assembly
    . socialist political prisoners freed
    . their uprising shocked Lenin
    . Trotsky sent in the Red Army & 20,000 were killed or wounded, many via labour camps in Siberia


    1921

    Death of Lenin

    The Death of Lenin
    . Died in January 1924
    . Suffered a series of strokes since 1922
    . Exhausted from the pressures & long hours

    . Petrograd renamed Leningrad
    Lenin's warning
    " Comrade Stalin having become General Secretary, has great power concentrated in his hands and I am not sure he always knows how to use that power with sufficient caution…… Stalin is too rude … find a way to remove Stalin from that post…."
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    1924

    After Lenin


    Leadership battle after Lenin's death


    Leon Trotsky

    STRENGTHS
    . Obvious choice to succeed Lenin
    . Well known & popular
    . Intelligent & good speaker
    . Hero for leading the 1917 revolution & the Red Army to victory in the
    Civil War
    WEAKNESSES
    . Arrogant
    . Ignored party politics
    . Some senior communists feared he would become a dictator with support from the Red Army
    . Was a sick man
    IDEAS
    . Believed in 'Permanent Revolution' and spreading communism around
    the world
    . Scrap NEP, take land & factories from peasants & workers, no more profit
    Stacks Image 9310
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    Joseph Stalin

    STRENGTHS
    . General Secretary of the Party was a very important position
    . Very good at party politics
    . Had expelled many Trotsky supporters
    . Many senior communists owed their positions to Stalin
    . Safe, not have extreme views
    WEAKNESSES
    . Dull & boring
    . Poor speaker
    . Not intellectual
    . Not seen as leadership material
    IDEAS
    . Believed in 'Socialism in One Country' - look after Russia first
    . Keep NEP for 20 years
    . Make Russia strong first then socialism

    1924

    USSR consitution


    1923 Constitution: created USSR - Union of Soviet Socialist Republics manage own affairs except defence & foreign policy

    1923

    Stalin's rise to power


    1924
    Helped Lenin to be a hero
    Showed himself as best friend of Lenin
    Tricked Trotsky into not attended Lenin's funeral
    Lenin's wishes that Stalin be sacked were ignored
    as Stalin's friends blocked the truth.

    1924

    Stalin's rise to power



    1925
    Stalin persuaded others that Trotsky's idea of 'Permanent Revolution was dangerous for all.


    1925

    Stalin's rise to power


    1926 - 1927
    Trotsky sacked as 'Commissar for War'.
    Trotsky and his allies were dismissed from the Politburo.


    1926-1927

    Cult of personality


    Propaganda & Cult of Personality
    Even before Stalin became leader he was using propaganda to develop his 'cult of personality'. He wished to be worshipped as a leader, like a God.
    . pictures & statues of Stalin everywhere
    . places named after him
    . clapping whenever his name was spoken
    Secret police
    . Arrested opponents
    . Scared people to control them
    Censorship
    . Everything was censored: newspapers, films, art & music to show communism was working and Stalin was a great leader & people were working hard. Many writers & artists left the country.

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    1927

    Collectivisation 1927


    Voluntary Collectivisation
    Government announces policy of collectivisation
    Few peasants take the opportunity to collectivise.
    Shortages of food in the cities, means Stalin forces the peasants to hand over food

    1927

    Stalin's rise to power


    1928 - 1929
    Stalin now wanted to scrap the NEP & build up industry.
    Leading Communists resigned from the Politburo. All Stalin's main opponents had gone.

    Trotsky exiled then killed
    Lived in Turkey, then Norway & Mexico, constant critic of Stalin. In 1940 he was killed.

    1928 - 1929

    Collectivisation


    Compulsory Collectivisation
    Stalin introduces compulsory collectivisation
    Peasants resisted, many killed their animals rather than hand them over
    There was temporary halt in 1930 as Stalin feared an entire harvests would be ruined, but continued again as soon as the harvest was in
    Stalin uses the army, police & secret police to force the peasants
    Kulaks are blamed the most, arrested & shot 'dekulakisation'

    1928

    Five Year Plan 1928 - 1933


    Stalin's priority was to industrialise the USSR:
    . match capitalism in terms of industrial production
    . benefit everyone in the country: the basis of communism



    Five Year Plans:
    State Planning Commission (GOSPLAN) set targets for key industries
    Aim:
    . focus on heavy industry
    . targets very high, but increases in all areas


    Industrial production
    Production increased:
    1. Community spirit
    Young people wanted to improve the country through these big projects
    2. Propaganda
    Workers were encouraged to work harder through
    poster campaigns, newspapers, cinema & heroes
    Stakhanovites: heroic workers who worked hard, in newspapers & posters
    3. Rewards
    Awards & honours for the best workers. There were competitions between individuals & teams.
    Stakhanovites were rewarded with better housing, holidays & cash bonuses.

    Wages were often based on 'piece-rates' - on how much workers produced.
    4. Punishments
    Anyone not seen to be working hard enough could be accused of being 'saboteurs' & thus sent to labour camps.
    Absenteeism was punished with fines, or loss of ration cards or being sacked.
    Labour books were carried by every worker. The books had to have good comments or they could lose food rations or face prison.


    1928

    Collectivisation


    Collectivisation amendments
    Peasants allowed to own a small plot & keep some animals.
    Private plots more productive.



    1930

    Stalin's purges


    First purges 1930 -1933
    Aimed at anyone getting in the way of Stalin's policies of industrialisation & collectivisation
    e.g. factory managers/workers - peasants & kulaks
    Arrested & sent to prisons or labour camps
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    1930

    Second Five Year Plan 1933 - 1937


    Stalin's priority was to industrialise the USSR:
    . match capitalism in terms of industrial production
    . benefit everyone in the country: the basis of communism



    Five Year Plans:
    State Planning Commission (GOSPLAN) set targets for key industries
    Aim:
    focus on heavy industry plus railways, chemicals, metallurgy

    Consequences fo the Five Year Plans

    Industrial centres
    . new industrial cities
    e.g. Magnitogorsk
    . access raw material
    . away from possible invaders

    Power & Transport
    . Huge power projects e.g. Dneiper Dam
    . Canals & railways connecting industrial centres & cities

    Industrialisation
    . went from underdeveloped to second
    largest industrialised country

    Managers
    . workers' committees were replaced with managers (sometimes foreigners)
    . managers were well rewarded for achieving the targets

    Skills
    . highly skilled workers
    e.g. engineers

    Outside help
    . specialists brought in from the West
    e.g. Ford from the USA helped USSR car industry
    . Dneiper Dam was supervised by an American
    Forced Labour
    . many of the major projects were built with forced labour, often peasants as well as political prisoners

    1933

    Stalin's Great Purge


    Great purge 1934 - 1938
    Aimed at Communist Party leaders & Armed Forces
    e.g. 1108 out of 1966 delegates at 17th Congress arrested
    Anyone with links to opponents sent to labour camps or shot
    Red Army Commander-in-Chief + 7 others arrested & shot (all heroes from the Civil War)

    Most naval officers & 50% army officers were shot

    Show Trials (Moscow Trials)
    . Trials of important Communists
    . Broadcast on radio
    . Crimes were laughable
    . Evidence often ridiculous
    BUT
    . They 'confessed' to the crimes & were found guilty including:
    Zinoviev, Kamenev, Yagoda & Bukharin
    Consequences
    . People lived in a permanent state of fear - telling on your neighbour was being loyal!
    . Armed forces lack experienced officers as WWII approached
    . Total power to Stalin - all opponents dead or too scared to act

    1934

    Life in the USSR in the 1930s


    Women
    . equality for women was a main theme for the communists
    . also women were needed to work to achieve the 5 Year Plans
    . women held management positions
    . encouraged to have children
    . work places had creches so mothers could work
    . in the 1930s many of the ideas of the 1920s were abandoned e.g. easy abortions & divorce
    . Stalin wanted families to stay together
    . child allowances were paid to married couples


    Home life
    . living standards slowly improved in the 1930s
    . food rationing improved after 1934
    . consumer goods were still difficult to buy e.g. clothes
    . high ranking party members, skilled workers & some peasants did well
    . health care improved with thousands of new hospitals built
    . all children received free education
    . crime & alcoholism increased

    . black market thrived with so many shortages
    Religion
    . all religions were attacked by Stalin
    . worshiping in a church or mosque became difficult
    . most places of worship were closed
    . people were encouraged to be atheist
    . the Russian Orthodox Church was seen as beingTsarist under Lenin

    Art, Literature & Music
    . had to members of a union
    . keep to union rules
    . everything had to reflect 'socialist spirit'
    . research had to follow marxist thinking
    . art = 'Socialist Realism'
    Work life
    . average wages fell between 1928 - 1933 by 50%
    (see Stalin's Economic Policies)
    . factories were driven by targets
    . quality was often poor
    . some workers were paid higher wages: scientists, engineers, teachers, factory managers etc + better housing & more consumer goods
    . every worker was allowed to take a holiday each year
    . many work places including collectives, also provided leisure activities:

    clubs, sports, film shows, festivals
    Labour Camps
    GULAGS

    For millions of people this was their experience of life under Stalin's communism.

    Camps were all over the USSR but most were in the frozen north - Siberia.
    The camps were full of:
    . peasants
    . kulaks
    . saboteurs
    . soldiers
    . politcal prisoners
    up to 2 million at a time


    Many of the USSR's major projects were built using forced labour:
    . Belomar Canal 1931-33
    (White Sea Canal)
    . over 100,000 workers at one time dug 141 miles in less than two years often with their bare hands
    (some say 20,000 people died during its construction)


    Other projects included:
    . Volga River canal
    . the dam and power station at Dneprostroi
    . industrial city of Magnitka
    . Moscow Metro


    Mines
    . many in the camps worked in the mines e.g. digging for gold at Kolyma

    1930s

    Second World War


    Stalin's wartime leadership
    Stalin's role
    . USSR was unable to stop the German blitzkrieg attack in 1941
    . Stalin appointed himself supreme commander
    . Turned the war around after Battle of Stalingrad and Battle of Kursk

    . Stalin oversaw the military and economy
    . Delegated military decision to commanders


    War conferences
    . Participated in all three conferences: Tehran, Yalta & Potsdam
    . He dominated the conferences as a skilled negotiator

    Political, economic and social problems
    Political
    . Treaty with Germany broken as Hitler invaded
    . USSR joined with Allies to fight the Germans

    . WWII known as the 'Great Patriotic War
    Social
    . over 26 million Soviets died ( civilians)
    . most jobs linked to military
    . people had strict rations
    . people suffered as the focus was on the military
    . many people were homeless
    . many lack food and even starved to death
    Economic.
    . spent $192 billion
    . economy shrank by 20% from 1941 - 1945
    . USSR lost 17,000 towns and 32,000 factories
    . 70% of industrial output went on the military
    . agricultural output slumped as focus on military, country faced food shortages
    . series of harvest failures
    Stacks Image 9540

    1941-1945
  • USA, 1920-1973: Timeline

    • America in the 1920s

      Treaty of Versailles 1919


      Stacks Image 9701

      . President Wilson introduced his 'Fourteen Points' at the Peace Conference
      , Division over the Treaty in the USA - Democrats negotiated it, Republicans less keen on it.

      1919

      Volstead Act - Prohibition 1919


      Stacks Image 9715

      . In 1919 the USA passed the Eighteenth Amendment to the US constitution:
      "a ban on the manufacture, sale or transportation of intoxicating liquors"
      but the consumption of alcohol was still legal
      . Described as a 'noble experiment'.

      1919

      Palmer Raids 1919


      Stacks Image 9729

      . Palmer Raids 1919-1921
      Attorney General Mitchell Palmer set up a division headed by J Edgar Hoover to look into ‘Reds’ in government.:
      . 200,000 + investigated
      . Thousands deported or jailed
      . Most were innocent, many arrested for looking like a radical


      1919

      League of Nations 1920


      . Republican leader in Congress, Lodge wanted changes to League & Wilson refused to compromise.
      . Republicans had a majority and refused to support the League.
      . Many wanted a return to
      isolationism, to be away from European problems.

      . Without USA the League was weakened, plus no Germany or Russia.
      . Without the USA sanctions were often meaningless, as countries could trade with the USA


      1920

      Women's Right to Vote 1920


      Stacks Image 9754

      . Women won the right to vote in 1920
      . Some women became more independent in the 1920s - the 'flapper'

      1920

      Steel Strike ends 1919


      Stacks Image 9768

      . After WWI many people lost their jobs as govt work for the war stopped.
      21 January 1919: 35,000 shipyard workers on strike
      6 February 1919: general strike in Seattle with 60,00 workers on strike
      “Reds” were blamed (though no evidence that Reds were involved) & the mayor got the police and troops on the streets.
      Striking workers went back to work in 1920

      1920

      Inventions 1920


      Stacks Image 9787
      Stacks Image 9784

      . The 1920s saw numerous new devices come to the market including:
      . refrigerators
      . washing machines
      . vacuum cleaners
      . dishwashers
      . frozen food


      1920

      First radio broadcast 1920


      . The first radio news programme was broadcast on 31st August, 1920
      . In the 1920s over 10 million radios were sold. Over 50 million people were regularly listening to the radio, with hundreds of stations across the country, listening to news, sports events, drama & music inc. jazz.

      1920

      The 'good' bootlegger


      . Roy Olmstead become a bootlegger whilst serving as a police officer
      . "My dad thought that prohibition was an immoral law. So he had no compunction about breaking that law.. And Dad's particular job was the bagman for the police department. He decided that patrolmen would get so much and no more per week; sergeants would get so much; lieutenants, captains and so on. So he was the paymaster for the Olmstead Gang". Edwin T Hunt

      1920

      Rum running


      Stacks Image 9823

      . William McCoy, a Florida boat captain established the 'rum running trade'
      . He shipped cases of rum from Nassau, in the Bahamas into Florida, making over $15,000 per trip

      1920

      Mass production


      Stacks Image 9837

      . Henry Ford set-up the first assembly line in 1913
      .
      Factories set up assembly lines to produce goods more quickly & cheaper - mass production
      . Each worker did only one or two jobs. Henry Ford used assembly lines to make cheap cars (Model T)

      1920

      Emergency Immigration Act 1921


      . Emergency Immigration Act 1921
      . limited number of immigrants to 3% of those in the country in 1910.
      . therefore favoured immigrants from Western Europe

      1921

      Sacco & Vanzetti arrested 1921


      Stacks Image 9867
      Sacco & Vanzetti Trial 1921
      . Found guilty of armed robbery & murder. in 1921. There were witnesses who said they were not even there when the crime happened. The judge did not like the fact they were anarchists (against government).
      . Appeals were dismissed.
      . There were protests from all around the world.


      1921

      Harding becomes president, 1921


      . Warren Harding sworn in as 29th US President

      Stacks Image 9881

      4 March 1921

      Fordney-McCumber Act 1922


      . The US govt. passed the Fordney-McCumber Act 1922 which increased tariffs (taxes) on goods imported.

      . This made products made in the USA cheaper so people bought US goods.


      1922

      Coolidge becomes President 1923


      . Calvin Coolidge sworn in as 30th US President
      Stacks Image 9908

      3 August 1923

      Marcus Garvey deported, 1923


      Marcus Garvey
      . Founded UNIA Universal Negro Improvement Association.
      . He stated blacks should not be part of white society, they ought to do business only with other blacks.
      . Black Americans would return to Africa, via his shipping line, the ‘Black Star.’
      . Garvey was arrested for fraud and deported in 1923.
      Stacks Image 9924

      1923

      Immigration Act 1924


      . Immigration Act
      . limited immigration to 2% (from 3%)
      . designed to stop Eastern & Southern Europeans


      1924

      John Scopes Trial, 1924


      . John Scopes was as a biology teacher in Tennessee, who taught about evolution, which was banned. In the 'Monkey Trial' which followed Scopes was fined $100, but most Americans thought the Christian Fundamentalists who wanted the law, were being ridiculous.
      .
      Biology text books avoided the word ‘evolution’ for many years afterwards. Trial showed the growing differences between traditional christians and the new belief in science. A battle between the old and the new.

      1924

      Dawes Plan, 1924


      . USA loaned Germany $200 million dollars, enabling Germany to rebuild its economy allowing it to pay its reparations

      1924

      Klu Klux Klan, 1924


      . By 1924 the KKK had a membership over over 5 million

      1924

      Al Capone leader of Chicago gang, 1925


      . The most famous of all the gangsters. Became leader of Chicago gang in 1925.
      . He controlled all the sales of alcohol in the city after he had his rival Moran & six others killed.
      Stacks Image 9984

      1925

      Sacco & Vanzetti executed 1927


      . Sacco & Vanzetti were executed. in 1927, despite in 1925 another man confessing to the robbery & murder.

      1927

      Hollywood 'talkies', 1927


      Stacks Image 10009

      . Sacco & Vanzetti were executed. in 1927, despite in 1925 another man confessing to the robbery & murder.
      . Cinemas appeared in every town & city in the USA
      . A weekly visit was normal
      . Movies were silent until 1927
      . Stars included: Charlie Chaplin, Greta Garbo and Rudolph Valentino
      . Films began to be made in Hollywood, Los Angeles

      1927

      Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928


      . USA and other major countries agreed not to go to war with each other

      1928

      St Valentines Day Massacre, 1929


      . The 'St. Valentines Massacre' in 1929, shocked the USA. with seven of Bugs Moran's gang shot by Al Capone's men. It was the one of many shootings across cities in the USA
      . No one knows how many people Al Capone had killed, some say over 200.
      . Reporters followed him around like a movie star.
      . It is thought he made £60 million a year.
      . Police could not convict him of any murders as nobody would say anything against him, fearing for their lives.


      14 February 1929

      Al Capone found guilty


      Stacks Image 10045

      . Al Capone found guilty of tax evasion and sentenced to 11 years in prison

      17 October 1931
  • Germany 1980 - 1945: Timeline


    Kaiser abdicates


    Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on 9 November and Fredreich Ebert (leader of the Social Democratic Party) made himself Chancellor and formed a new government.
    Initially the Kaiser refused to surrender but the Allies would not sign the armistice until he did.
    Sailers in Kiel mutinied.


    9 November 1818

    Germany surrenders


    The new govt. surrendered to the Allies on 11 November 1918.

    11 November 1918

    Protests


    Protests and attempted revolutions by right and left wing groups were held across cities in Germany.

    November 1918

    Spartacists uprising


    Stacks Image 12101
    Spartacus League
    .
    Leaders: Rosa Luxembourg + Karl Liebknecht

    . Against the rich ruling Germany
    . Tried a communist revolution in Berlin
    . Defeated in two weeks by Freikorps


    5 January 1919

    Weimar National Assembly


    Stacks Image 12117

    National Assembly
    .
    Drafts the new republic's constitution
    . Friedrich Ebert is elected President
    . System of proportional representation used

    February 1919

    Treaty of Versailles


    Stacks Image 12131
    Germany signs the Treaty of Versailles and is force to accept blame for the war.

    PUNISHMENT FOR GERMANY
    PUNISHMENT FOR GERMANY
    LAND
    . Colonies taken away
    . Land given to Poland, France
    & Belgium & Saarland given to League for 15 years
    . Split into two parts: Germany & East Prussia

    MILITARY
    . Army = 100,000 men
    . No Tanks
    . Navy = 6 ships
    . No submarines
    . No airforce
    . No army in the Rhineland

    MONEY
    . Pay reparations (cost of the war) of £6,600 million over 42 years
    ALLIANCES
    . Germany not allowed to unite with Austria
    BLAME
    . War Guilt - Germany
    had to admit that the war was their fault
    DICTAT - the dictated peace

    28 June 1919

    Weimar constitution


    Weimar constitution is signed


    11 August 1919

    German Workers' Party


    Formation
    . Party formed by Anton Drexler and Karl Harrer as nationalist and anti semitic
    . Drexler invited Hitler to join after he was initially employed to spy on the party!

    11 August 1919

    Kapp Putsch


    Freikorps - Kapp Putsch
    . Leader: Dr Kapp
    . Hated communists & Peace Treaty
    . Army would not go against Freikorps
    . Workers of Berlin went on strike against the Freikorps & the revolt ended after 4 days
    Stacks Image 12175

    March 1920

    Hitler becomes party leader


    Adolf Hitler
    . Hitler becomes leader of the Socialist Workers' Party
    Stacks Image 12191

    28 July 1921

    Occupation of the Ruhr


    Stacks Image 12205
    Invasion of the Ruhr
    . French & Belgium troops invaded the Ruhr as Germany stopped paying reparations, they took goods e.g. coal instead of money
    . This was humiliating for Germany & made the Weimar govt. look weak

    11 January 1923

    Hyperinflation


    Stacks Image 12218
    Hyper-inflation
    Money became worthless as the government printed more & more to pay the reparations & pay the striking workers in the Ruhr.
    e.g. 1918 bread = 0.6 marks
    1923 bread = 250 marks

    1923

    Stresemann becomes Chancellor


    Stacks Image 12231
    Stresemann was Chancellor of a coalition govt. in 1923:
    . created a new currency the Rentenmark
    . ordered striking workers in the Ruhr back to work
    . agreed to pay reparations again (this made him unpopular)

    1923

    New currency


    Stacks Image 12244
    New currency - the Rentenmark ended the hyperinflation.
    . People had confidence in the rentenmark

    1923

    Munich Putsch


    Stacks Image 12257
    Why?
    . hoped for army support him
    . thought Bavarian govt would help him

    Failure
    . Army & police stopped the Nazis
    . Hitler & Lindenburg were arrested

    Trial
    . Hitler, Lindenburg, Rohm & others on trial
    Success
    . Gave Hitler a a chance to be famous
    . Judges were lenient - Hitler sentenced to only 9 months in prison - had own room & allowed visitors

    . Party was banned


    8 November 1923

    Dawes Plan


    . USA lends money to Germany.
    . The money is spent building factories to make profits for Germany - Germany pays reparations to France & Britain
    . France & Britain pays back money it owes to USA for WWI loans

    . Germany factories had brand new machinery and adopted US assembly line techniques.
    . The German economy grew quicker than in France or Britain.

    1924

    Mein Kampf


    . Mein Kampf written by Hitler is published - setting out his ideas

    1925

    Nazi Party reformed


    . Party's ban ended on 27 February 1925
    . Same day Hitler reformed the Nazi Party


    1925

    Locarno Pact


    . Germany, France & Belgium agreed not to attack each other
    . Agreed to keep the borders as they are


    1925

    League of Nations


    . Stresemann took Germany into the League of Nations
    . He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
    . Germany back on the world stage after theTreaty of Versailles

    1926

    Hitler Youth


    . Formed out of different organisations
    . Came under the SA
    Stacks Image 12327

    1926

    Kellogg-Briand Pact


    . 60 countries inc. Germany signed a pact agreeing not to attack each other

    1928

    1928 Elections


    Stacks Image 12357
    Stacks Image 12354

    1928

    Young Plan


    . Reparations reduced by 25%
    . Reparations to be paid over next 58 years
    . USA continued to lend Germany money as economy grew

    1929

    Wall Street Crash


    . Share price collapsed companies became worthless
    . Banks went
    bankrupt
    . Businesses closed
    people lost their jobs
    . Unemployment increased
    less money to buy goods
    . Demand for goods fell and other countries went into
    depression

    October 1929

    Economic depression


    Unemployment
    1929: 1.25 million (8%)
    1930: 4 million (15%)
    1933: 6+ million (30%)
    60 % of university graduates had no job

    Dawes Plan
    USA stopped new loans and demanded old loans be repaid
    Industry
    1932: Industrial production down 58%

    Exports
    1930: USA put tariffs on imports = German companies could not export (sell) to the USA

    1930

    Bruning government


    Government had many problems when the depression hit Germany:
    . more money needed to help unemployed people
    . less money from taxes as fewer people worked

    Government not have enough money to help the people

    . not print money because it causes inflation so:
    March 1930 Bruning wanted: to raise taxes 2.5% on govt. workers
    cut wages by 23%
    cut unemployment benefit by 5%
    . other political parties did not want this so Bruning used President decrees

    1930

    Von Papen government


    Bruning resigned in May 1932 as unemployment kept rising
    . Von Papen became Chancellor & he called elections for July 1932
    . People wanted a strong leader & Hitler (Nazis) won most seats
    . Von Papen stayed as Chancellor & called for another election in Nov 1932
    . Schleicher became new Chancellor as Nazis got less votes

    1932

    July 1932 Elections


    . The Nazis were the largest party in the Reichstag
    . Nazis won 37% of the vote
    Stacks Image 12435
    Stacks Image 12432

    July 1932

    November 1932 Elections


    Stacks Image 12451
    Stacks Image 12448

    November 1932

    Hitler appointed Chancellor


    . Von Schleider resigns after Hindenburg refuses to rule by decree & he does not have Reichstag support
    . President Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of Germany

    30 January 1933

    Reichstag Fire


    Stacks Image 12473
    . The Reichstag building caught fire.
    . One of first people there was Goering who immediately blamed the communists.
    . Hitler told Von Papen that is was the start of a communist revolution and wanted to arrest all the communist leaders. A young Dutchman named Lubbe was arrested - and he admitted he did it, but that he was not a communist. Later he said he was a communist.
    . Others including the communist leader Torgler were arrested
    . Many people including many foreign newspapers at the time said the fire was the work of the Nazis.


    27 February 1933

    Communist party banned


    . Hitler used his powers of Chancellor to issue a decree to ban the communist party

    28 February 1933

    Propaganda


    . Goebbels appointed as Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda
    Newspapers: only pro Nazi papers allowed
    Radios: Nazi controlled, radios cheap so
    everyone could have one, inc. cafes & factories.
    Movies: all films checked, over 100 per year
    Books: no Jewish or Communist writers allowed,
    Music: no music by black musicians
    Art: only approved art allowed
    Schools: told what to teach, history pro nazi
    Stacks Image 12499

    14 March 1933

    Enabling Act


    Stacks Image 12513
    . The Enabling Act gave emergency powers to Hitler - to rule by decree for four years.

    23 March 1933

    Concentration camps


    Stacks Image 12526
    . Concentration camps established
    . Initially held people under 'protective custody' - political enemies of the Nazis e.g. Communists + Trade unionists
    . Camps reported in the newspapers as a good thing in 1933
    . Camp expansion under the SS after 1937
    . 'Undesirables' sent to camps including Jews, Slavs, Gypsies, homosexuals etc

    March 1933

    Boycott of Jewish businesses


    . Hitler ordered the SA to make life difficult for the Jews
    . Shops were smashed, people stopped using Jewish businesses, lawyers etc
    Stacks Image 12541

    1 April 1933

    Gestapo established


    . Goring established the secret police - the Gestapo then led by Heydrich
    . Aim was to stop any ideas other than Nazi ideas.
    . 'Enemies of the State' were dealt with severely.
    . Everyone feared the Gestapo.

    April 1933

    Night of the Long Knives


    SS murdered Rohm & other SA leaders.
    . SA forced to merge with German army.
    . Feared Rohm as possible rival, SA not really under Hitler's control & it's actions too violent at times.
    . Served as a warning to other Nazis.
    . German Army not like SA & Hitler needed army support.

    30 June 1934

    President Hindenburg dies

    Hitler become Fuhrer


    . Hindenburg dies of lung cancer
    . Hitler proclaims the merging of the roles of Chancellor and President
    . Hitler becomes the Fuhrer
    Stacks Image 12581

    2 August 1934

    Nuremburg Laws


    . Jews lost German citizenship
    . Jews not marry non Jews
    . Jews banned from public facilities
    . German schools taught children to hate the Jews


    15 September 1935

    Berlin Olympic Games


    . Berlin hosted the summer Olympics
    . Hitler used this for propaganda purposes
    Stacks Image 12608

    15 September 1935

    Kristallnacht


    . In 1938 a German diplomat in Paris was killed by a Jew whose family had been expelled from Germany
    . The Nazis launched an attack on Jews, destroying businesses and over 30,000 were sent to concentration camps.
    Stacks Image 12624

    1938

    German Anschluss with Austria


    . In 1

    1938

    Treaty of Munich


    . In 1

    30 September 1938

    Hitler invades Czechoslovakia


    . In 1

    March 1939

    Nazi-Soviet Non Aggression Pact


    . In 1938 a German diplomat in Paris was killed by a Jew whose family had been expelled from Germany
    . The Nazis launched an attack on Jews, destroying businesses and over 30,000 were sent to concentration camps.

    August 1939

    Germany invades Poland


    .

    1 September 1939

    Britain and France declare war on Germany


    . Britain declares war on Germany after the invasion of Poland, with whom Britain had a pact

    3 September 1939

    German home front


    . Rationing was introduced, including clothes
    . Hot water was limited to two days a week

    1939

    Germany invades Denmark & Norway


    . I

    April 1940

    Blitzkrieg


    . German Blitzkrieg tactics leads to quick military victories in the Netherlands, Belgium and France.

    May 1940

    Battle of Britain


    . German Luftwaffe attacks Britain prior to a planned land invasion.

    10 July 1940

    Operation Barbarossa


    . Hitler launches an attack on Russia

    22 June 1941

    Battle of Stalingrad


    . Attack on the city of Stalingrad

    22 June 1941

    Soviet counter offensive


    . German forces pushed the Soviets back on all fronts

    1942

    German home front


    . Rationing got worse - little meat was available
    . A 60 hour work week was introduced

    1943

    German home front


    . Non essential shops in Germany closed - e.g. toy shops
    . Women were required to work in factories

    1943

    Hitler commits suicide


    . Hitler commits suicide

    30 May 1945
  • Conflict and tension between East and West, 1945 - 1972: Timeline

    Part One: Origins of the Cold War

    • End of World War II

      Tehran Conference


      Tehran Conference mainly talked about military issues, but Poland's borders were discussed. USA/GB wanted Stalin's help in defeating Germany - Stalin used this to get his way over controlling Eastern Europe after the war.

      Stacks Image 13717
      Stalin (USSR)
      Roosevelt (USA)
      Churchill (UK)

      Agreement
      Germany

      . Operation Overlord (D-Day) approved
      . work closely together to defeat Germany
      . Germans to return from Eastern Europe
      Turkey
      . get Turkey on their
      side against Germany

      Tensions
      Germany
      . Stalin wanted to kill German officers so
      they could not start another war
      Poland
      . discussions about the borders for Poland


      November 1943

      Yalta Conference


      Yalta Conference was designed to discuss post war Europe.
      Churchill believed that he could trust Stalin regarding free elections in Poland.

      Stacks Image 13744
      Churchill (UK)
      Roosevelt (USA)
      Stalin (USSR)

      Agreement
      Germany

      . disarmed
      . split into 4 zones
      . pay reparations

      Poland
      . free elections
      +
      . USSR to fight Japan
      . United Nations to replace League

      Tensions
      Poland
      . USSR wanted Poland's borders moved,
      wanting Polish land
      . USSR wanted Eastern European countries to be under their
      'sphere of influence'


      sentiment_very_satisfied
      February 1945

      Potsdam Conference


      Britain had a new prime Minister & USA a new president at the conference.
      Aim was to decide what to do with Germany, peace treaties & the
      consequences of war.

      Stacks Image 13771
      Attlee (UK)
      Truman(USA)
      Stalin (USSR)

      Agreement
      Germany

      . Nazi party banned
      . equipment taken as reparations
      . Germans to return from Eastern Europe
      Poland
      . borders agreed
      Vietnam
      . agreed to divide into North & South

      Tensions
      Poland
      . Polish leaders imprisoned & communists
      take over
      Atomic bomb
      . USA not tell Stalin about the atomic bomb


      sentiment_very_satisfied
      10 April 2022

      Dropping of the atomic bombs


      Atomic bomb
      Considered a demonstration bombing to show the Japanese the power. Decided not to show to keep element of surprise.
      Targets were selected.
      Hoped after one atomic bomb drop Japan would surrender, therefore
      casualties less than invasion.
      No US deaths compared with up to 1 million if the US invaded Japan

      Stacks Image 13798
      Stacks Image 13795

      First atomic bomb
      Hiroshima - 6th August 1945
      Killed 90,000 - 150,000 +
      Many died months after 70% of
      the city destroyed
      Japanese govt. gave no
      public response about
      bomb & continued the war.

      Second atomic bomb
      Nagasaki - 9th August 1945
      40,000 - 80,000 killed
      Many died months after
      Damage restricted by hillsides around Nagasaki


      August 1945
    • The Iron Curtain and the evolution of East - West rivalry

      Long telegrams


      Long telegram from George Kennan
      US Embassy in Moscow
      USSR was building up its military for war against USA
      Stalin wanted to destroy capitalism

      sentiment_very_satisfied
      February 1946

      Iron Curtain Speech


      Churchill made a speech in the USA saying:
      Communism was against democracy & freedoms
      Stalin wanted to spread communism around the world

      Stalin replied saying:
      Churchill was trying to start a war
      Eastern Europe wanted communism

      5 March 1946

      Long telegram


      Novikov telegram from
      USSR Embassy in USA
      USA not into co-operation with USSR
      USA wanted to dominate the world
      USA was preparing for war against USSR

      sentiment_very_satisfied
      September 1946

      Germany


      Germany caused lots of disagreements
      Reparations:
      USA said USSR went against agreements
      Rebuilding Germany:
      USA wanted to rebuild Germany
      USSR wanted to keep Germany weak

      Democracy:
      USA wanted free & open elections in Germany
      USSR did not want free & open elections

      1946

      Truman Doctrine


      National Security Act 1947
      Established:
      . Department of Defence
      . National Security Council
      . Criminal Intelligence Agency (CIA)


      Containment
      USA giving money and military help to countries to fight communism
      Consequences:
      Truman said world was now divided:
      free = USA not free = USSR
      USA was now committed to Containment

      Domino Theory
      Greece & Turkey got money from the USA to fight communists.

      USA was scared if one country went communist its neighbour might go communist and then spread everywhere.


      Greece & Turkey
      . Support for Greece and Turkey to fight the communists after Britain could no longer afford to help


      1947

      Marshall Plan


      USA helped Europe rebuild after the war
      USA sent:
      . grants & loans
      . equipment
      . goods

      USA got:
      . countries to buy their goods
      . chance to invest in Europe
      . allegiance from European countries so less likely to become communist

      Consequences
      . Western Europe not become communist
      . Europe start trading again - good for Europe & USA

      . Europe became divided between: East & West (Iron Curtain)
      . Stalin said Marshall Plan was to control W.Europe

      April 1948

      Berlin Blockade & Airlift


      . USA / France / UK joined their zones to form one country
      . 23rd June allies introduced a new currency 'DeutscheMark'
      . 24th June Stalin ordered West Berlin to be cut-off - blockaded

      Allies had a choice: give up on West Berlin or supply it from the air.

      The Berlin Airlift began on 26th June 1948


      Airlift Facts
      Start: 26th June 1948
      Finish: 12 May 1949

      Needed to supply 2 million people with everything they needed to live.
      Around 277,000 flights
      Flight crews, not get out in Berlin - unloaded the planes then took off straight away.
      Only 12 crashes, killing 31

      2.3 million tons of supplies - 65% of cargo was coal
      Candy Bombers: Crews threw sweets out of the planes to children
      Soviets harassed the planes but did not risk shooting down a plane.


      26 June 1948

      Soviet control of Eastern Europe


      By 1949 these countries became communist controlled
      & came under the influence of Stalin:

      Poland . Czechoslovakia . East Germany . Hungary
      Romania . Bulgaria . Albania . Yugoslavia


      Buffer zone
      Eastern European countries to act as
      a military ‘buffer zone’ between Germany and the USSR.
      Power vacuum
      With the end of German rule many countries lacked government & law & order.
      Soviet 'sphere of influence'
      Stalin saw this as an opportunity to extend his influence over others - 'world communism'.
      Red Army
      With the Red Army in Eastern European countries Stalin knew there was little the West could do to get him out - except by using atomic bombs.

      sentiment_very_satisfied
      1949

      Division of Germany


      Germany was run by the occupying countries:
      USA, UK, France and USSR until 1949.
      Different countries had different ideas about what Germany should look like in the future

      USA
      . wanted Germany to be poor and mainly a farming country.
      UK
      . did not want to spend money on helping Germany
      USSR
      . took goods from Germany as compensation, and placed communists
      in control


      West Germany
      Federal Republic of Germany
      1948 elections, a government
      was formed
      20 September 1949 became FRG
      1949 elections: communists won 5.7%
      East Germany
      German Democratic Republic
      1946 elections: socialists won
      USSR controlled the socialists
      7 October 1949 became GDR
      1950 elections: socialists won 99%

      1949

    Part Two: The development of the Cold War

    • Significance of events in Asia on superpower relations

      Soviet - China Relations


      Need for co-operation:
      . tensions with USA
      . atomic bombs
      . formation of NATO
      Mao travelled to Moscow to meet with Stalin where they signed:
      Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance
      Military: if either attacked the other would come to support
      Economic: Soviet’s loaned $300 million + gave technical support
      China needed support to develop its industry - Soviet experts lived and worked in China

      January 1950

      Korean War


      Invasion of the South

      The North Korean People’s Army invaded across the 38th parallel with 75,000 troops.

      This was a civil war - North v South, but it quickly became a ‘proxy’ war between the two superpowers: USA v USSR.

      UN action over the invasion by North Korea
      The United Nations Security Council met on 25th June, 1950, in response to North Korea’s invasion.

      They issued UN Security Resolution 82:
      The resolution condemned the "armed attack on the Republic of Korea by forces from North Korea", while calling for "the immediate cessation of hostilities" and for "the authorities in North Korea to withdraw forthwith their armed forces to the 38th parallel".

      The vote was 9 - 0. Under normal circumstances the USSR would have vetoed the resolution, but the Soviet Union was boycotting the United Nations Security Council.

      Votes: USA, UK, France, China + Cuba, Ecuador, Egypt, India, Yugoslavia, Norway
      Soviet Union (absent)

      Peace and an armistice

      The Chinese & Koreans agreed to an armistice, which was signed on 27 July 1953 by them and the United Nations led by the USA.
      This was temporary until a peaceful settlement could be reached.

      As part of the armistice the following was agreed:
      . stop all fighting
      . POWs could decide where to go - North or South
      . a new border was agreed and a demilitarisation zone
      . establishment of a Military Armistice Commission (MAC) to ensure the truce held

      25th June 1950

      Peaceful co-existence


      Two years after Stalin died Nikita Khrushchev became the new leader in the USSR.
      Khrushchev announced a policy of: Peaceful Co-exisyence
      Some of his ideas included:. Defence spending needed to be reduced

      . Nuclear war was unthinkable
      . Soviet economy needed be be improved & modernised
      . Eastern European countries should be allowed to make some of their
      own decisions. more dialogue with the West including a summit with the USA
      . Third World countries need to be 'won over' to socialism/communism. met with Tito, the leader of Yugoslavia & apologised to him for Stalin's
      Khrushchev famously denounced some of Stalin's policies in a speech. Of Stalin he said:.
      . he had gone too far with his purges
      . Cominform was an unnecessary way of controlling Eastern European countries
      He wanted to 'deStalinise Eastern Europe'

      1959

      Hungarian uprising


      Stacks Image 14021

      The period after Stalin's death 'Peaceful Co-existence', under Khrushchev brought
      some changes to many communist countries in Eastern Europe.
      Many countries wanted to 'reform' some of the communist policies & systems.
      Hungary brought in a more reformist leader - Imre Nagy
      Uprising is put down as Red Army (200,000) + 2,500 tanks invades Hungary
      Nagy appeals to President Eisenhower for help
      Janos Kadar becomes Prime Minister

      October 1956
    • Cold War crises, 1958-1972

      Arms Race


      USA drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki

      Stacks Image 14042

      August 1945

      Arms Race


      USSR test first atomic bomb

      Stacks Image 14058

      1949

      Formation of NATO


      North Atlantic Treaty Organisation 1949
      Aim:
      . NATO fight only if attacked - attack one NATO country attack al
      Concerns:
      . USA was concerned about USSR in Eastern Europe and the Berlin Blockade
      NATO members
      . USA . Canada . UK . Belgium . Denmark . France . Iceland . Italy . Luxembourg . Netherlands . Norway . Portugal later ….. Greece, West Germany & Turkey

      NATO was generally ahead in the nuclear arms race but behind in numbers of sol


      1949

      Arms Race


      USSR detonates first hydrogen bomb


      1953

      Formation of Warsaw Pact


      Aim:
      . to co-ordinate a defensive alliance and protect themselves from the USA/NATO
      Concerns:
      . formation of NATO and the nuclear arming of Western countries


      Poland . Czechoslovakia . East Germany . Hungary
      Romania . Bulgaria . Albania . Yugoslavia


      1956

      Space Race


      USSR launched first space satellite into orbit around the earth called ‘Sputnik 1’. Transmitted a short wave signal ‘beep, beep’ for 22 days
      Stacks Image 14112

      October 1957

      Space Race


      USA forms NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) after the Soviets launch Sputnik.
      Formed to speed up the USA's space programme to compete with the USSR

      1958

      Arms Race


      . USA launches first nuclear powered submarine
      . can fire a Polaris missile from underwater with an atomic weapon
      Stacks Image 14139

      1960

      Space Race


      • Yuri Gagarin became the first human to fly in space on 12 April 1961, in his Vostok 1 spacecraft. He orbited Earth once and landed near the Russian city of Saratov.
      • Gagarin’s flight pushed the Soviet Union ahead in the Space Race with the United States. It also pushed President John F. Kennedy to declare that NASA would land humans on the Moon by 1970.
      Stacks Image 14155

      April 1961

      Space Race


      In February 1962 John Glenn became the first American to orbit the earth
      Stacks Image 14171

      February 1962

      Space Race


      China tests uranium bomb in 1964, it was the first of 45 tests that the Chinese carried out

      February 1962

      Space Race


      . Americans Apollo 11 mission landed on the moon and Armstrong became the first man on the moon
      Stacks Image 14203

      21 July 1969
    • The 'Thaw'

    Part Three: Transformation of the Cold War

    • Berlin Wall

      Berlin Wall


      1953: East Germans need permission to travel to West Berlin

      1953

      Berlin Wall


      1957: Leaving East Germany without permission = 3 years in prison

      1957

      Berlin Wall


      Stacks Image 14254

      1953: East Germans need permission to travel to West Berlin
      1957: Leaving East Germany without permission = 3 years in prison 1958: Soviet made several demands
      The West refused the demands & Khrushchev backed down
      1960: West Germany is bad for East German economy & it must be corrected according to East German leader
      1961: June Summit - Khrushchev tries to pressure the new US president, Kennedy, by insisting the Western powers leave Berlin. Kennedy pledges to support West Berlin
      1961: 15th June - East German leader Walter Ulbricht said he no intention of erecting a wall
      1961: 25th July - US President J.F. Kennedy spoke about the need to hold onto West Berlin and that NATO should react to any threat from the Soviets.
      1961: 12th August - East German leader orders a barricade to separate Berlin
      Barbed wire used followed by concrete wall.

      12 August 1961

      U2 Incident


      1. USA began flying the U2 spy plane without President Truman knowing about it
      2. President Truman banned flights when he found out about
      3. U2 flights started again in 1956 when President Eisenhower
      gave his permission. He wanted to find out about the nuclear missiles in Russia
      4. The U2 could fly at 73,000 feet at 460 knots but was not
      5. In May 1960 the USSR shot down a U2 spy plane and captured the pilot, Gary Powers
      Stacks Image 14270

      Paris Summit between USSR and USA collapsed as a result of the U2 incident

      May 1960
    • Tensions over Cuba

      Bay of Pigs


      Stacks Image 14290

      Invasion
      . CIA trained 1,400 exiles
      . invaded with support of bombers flown by Cubans
      . invasion easily stopped & 1,200 exiles were captured
      Consequences
      .
      USA: JFK hugely embarrassed - seen as a bully
      . Cuba: moved Castro closer to the USSR
      . USSR: supports Cuba, gains an ally (friend) in Central America

      1961

      Missiles on Cuba


      Khrushchev decides to place missiles on Cuba in 1962 for several reasons

      Central America
      . Supporting Cuba was seen as important
      in establishing an ally
      (friend) in Central
      America & try to limit
      or stop US influence
      Kennedy weak
      . Some saw Kennedy as a young inexperienced President who could be pushed around

      . He was seen as being weak after the unsuccessful Bay of Pigs operation

      Missiles in Turkey
      . US missiles in Turkey gave the US a strategic military advantage
      . Khrushchev hoped that his missiles in Cuba could be used to negotiate
      the removal of the Turkish missiles plus US position in Berlin


      1962

      Spy planes


      US spy planes spot observe Soviet personnel and weapons on Cuba

      August 1962

      Spy planes


      USA U2 spy plane takes photographs of the construction of nuclear missile launch site in Cuba.
      USSR ships seen in the Atlantic Ocean heading to Cuba, with what looked like missiles on board.
      Stacks Image 14343

      14 October 1962

      Missile sites


      . By 16 October it had become clear that the Cubans were allowing the Soviets to establish missile sites on the island
      . Meeting of EX COM where President Kennedy was warned the missile sites could be operational by the end of October
      . Kennedy given choices as what to do
      Stacks Image 14359

      16 October 1962

      Quarantine


      . Kennedy does a TV address to the American public announcing that there is proof that the Soviets have missiles on Cuba
      . Kennedy informs the Americans and the worlds that he is imposing a quarantine on Cuba - Soviet ships carrying missiles will be turned back
      Stacks Image 14375

      22 October 1962

      Khrushschev's response


      Khrushchev's response was to ignore the blockade & did not admit to having
      missiles on Cuba. It said it was merely helping Cuba defend itself & the USA was
      taking the world to war.

      23 October 1962

      Blockade works


      Stacks Image 14400

      Soviet ships stop and turn around at the blockade line, except one carrying oil

      24 October 1962

      Khrushchev's first 'letter'


      Khrushchev sent a letter saying that the USSR would remove the missiles if:
      USA stopped the blockade & USA promise not to invade Cuba in the future

      26 October 1962

      Khrushchev's second 'letter'


      Khrushchev second letter adds a demand that US missiles should be removed from
      Turkey. A U2 spy plane is shot down & JFK is pushed to retaliate. USA agree to first
      letter demands then JFK sends a secret message to Khrushchev agreeing to remove
      Turkey missiles.

      27 October 1962

      Removal of missiles


      Removal of missiles from Cuba agreed by Khrushchev

      28 October 1962
    • Czechoslovakia

      Dubcek's Action Programme


      Dubcek
      . Action Programme is launched
      Stacks Image 14454

      April 1968

      Censorship abolished


      Censorship was abolished & political prisoners freed.
      People demanded more than Dubcek’s Action Programme.
      Soviet forces stay in Czech after Warsaw Pact exercises.

      June 1968

      Soviet's react


      Stacks Image 14479

      Soviet troops at the Czech border.
      Warsaw Pact meets to discuss situation in Czech. &
      warn leaders

      July 1968

      Soviet's take action


      Stacks Image 14493

      . Dubcek speech said there was no going back.
      . Warsaw Pact agreed to stop ‘anti-socialist forces’ & backed the Brezhnev Doctrine

      20 August Soviet & Warsaw Pact forces invade Czech
      21 August Dubcek arrested & flown to Moscow & signed Moscow Protocol (Soviet troops to stay
      in Czech)
      Workers & students confronted invading troops.
      700 - 1000 Czechs were killed
      September/October
      70,000 plus fled from Czech
      New govt formed headed by
      Husak.

      August 1968

      New government formed


      . 70,000 plus fled from Czech
      . New govt formed headed by Husak.

      September - October 1968
    • Easing of tension

      Hotline


      Kennedy & Brezhnev
      Set up a telephone ‘hotline’ after the Cuban Missile Crisis which nearly led to a nuclear war.
      Messages sent by telegraph were slow and liable to be misinterpreted.
      The USA said of the hotline that it will “help reduce the risk of war occurring by accident or miscalculation.”

      August 1963

      Limited Test Ban Treaty


      Limited Test Ban Treaty 1963
      USA, USSR & GB signed the test ban in Moscow.
      France& China refused tosign.

      The ban ‘prohibited the testing of nuclear weapons in outer space, underwater or in the atmosphere.’

      1963

      Outer Space Nuclear Treaty 1967


      Outer Space Nuclear Treaty 1967
      . USA, USSR & GB signed the treaty (+100 others after ’67).
      . Bans nuclear weapons being used in space

      1967

      Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons 1968


      Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons 1968
      Non-nuclear-weapon states agree never to have nuclear weapons and the nuclear-weapon states agree to share the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology and to aim for nuclear disarmament and the ultimate

      1968

      US-China relations


      Stacks Image 14565

      Nixon visited Mao in China in February in 1972, the first US president to go to communist China.
      The US dropped its opposition to China joining the United Nations.

      1972

      SALT I


      Stacks Image 14579

      Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) 1972
      Talks about limiting weapons began in 1969, with the treaty
      signed in Moscow: The treaty:the arms race.
      . limited the number of launching missile sites to two per side
      . no more ICBM/SLBMS built for 5 years
      . Other things decided at the summit:
      . Further talks for another Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty
      . Brezhnev agreed to allow Jews to emigrate
      , Signed an agreement to work together in space
      . Co-operate on environmental protection

      1972
  • Conflict and tension in Asia, 1950 - 19725 Timeline


    Part One: Conflict in Korea


    • The causes of the Korean War

      Why was the USA involved?

      Before 1950 USA was not very interested in Korea.

      BUT in 1950:
      USA policy of Containment: stop communism spreading around the world

      USA ideas in NSC 68 which said USA needed more arms & it should ‘roll back’ communism.

      USA believed in Domino Theory. If South Korea were to become communist it would spread to other countries for example Japan.

      USA supported the South Korean leader Syngman Rhee as an anti-communist.
      Pre 1950
      Why was the USSR involved?

      Before 1950 USSR was not very interested in Korea.

      BUT in 1949:
      NATO was formed and Stalin was worried, plus USA was helping Japan.

      Stalin thought USA was being ‘aggressive’ in Asia and trying ti influence the region.

      Stalin and the USSR supported the communist leader

      When Kim Il-Sung leader of North Korea told Stalin he wanted to invade the South, Stalin thought it a good idea as it would cause the USA problems

      USSR gave North Korea weapons and advice, but never sent Russian soldiers
      Pre 1950
      North and South Korea

      Both the leaders in North and South Korea saw themselves as the rightful leader of a united Korea.

      There were a number of incidents on the border between North and South and tension remained high from 1948-50.

      Kim Il-Sung visited Stalin in 1949 to get his support to invade the South and unite Korea. Stalin was not sure at the time, but a year later gave his support as the USA had pulled its troops out of South Korea, the USSR was now its own atomic bombs to match the USA and China was now a communist country.

      Stalin supported North Korea with military equipment but would not send Soviet soldiers.
      Pre 1950
      UN Election Commission
      The United Nations in 1947, with General Assembly Resolution 112 established a commission to oversee elections in Korea with the aim to unite Korea.
      North Korea refused entry to the UN.

      After elections in the South UN General Assembly Resolution 148 stated that Korea should be united and the Soviet Union and the USA pull out of Korea.

      UN military observers
      As clashes on the border grew UN monitors were sent to the border to observe and try to prevent further incidents.
      1947
      UN recognition of South Korea
      UN General Assembly Resolution 293 (Oct. 1949) legally recognised the South Korean elections and therefore the government led by Syngnam Rhee.
      North Korea refused to accept the UN resolution and said it will ‘drive out the United Nations’.

      The Soviet Union boycotts the United Nations
      When the communists took over China, the Security Council refused to acknowledge the new government and continued to support the Republic of China (Taiwan) as the legitimate government. the Soviet Union stormed out of the United Nations and refused to attend Security Council meetings whilst the Republic of China was recognised.
      This UN boycott meant the Soviet Union was not part of the Security Council when North Korea invaded the South.
      1949

    • The development of the Korean war
      Invasion of the South

      The North Korean People’s Army invaded across the 38th parallel with 75,000 troops.

      This was a civil war - North v South, but it quickly became a ‘proxy’ war between the two superpowers: USA v USSR.
      25th June 1950
      UN action over the invasion by North Korea
      The United Nations Security Council met on 25th June, 1950, in response to North Korea’s invasion.

      They issued UN Security Resolution 82:
      The resolution condemned the "armed attack on the Republic of Korea by forces from North Korea", while calling for "the immediate cessation of hostilities" and for "the authorities in North Korea to withdraw forthwith their armed forces to the 38th parallel".

      The vote was 9 - 0. Under normal circumstances the USSR would have vetoed the resolution, but the Soviet Union was boycotting the United Nations Security Council.

      Votes: USA, UK, France, China + Cuba, Ecuador, Egypt, India, Yugoslavia, Norway
      Soviet Union (absent)
      sentiment_very_satisfied
      25th June 1950
      Phase One

      On 25 June 1950, the North Koreans attacked.   They were very successful. The North Korean People's Army (NKPA) easily defeated the Republic of Korea's army (the ROKs).
      They captured most of South Korea.
       
      The USA was shocked and alarmed.
      On 27 June they persuaded the United Nations to pass a resolution supporting South Korea.
         
      The USA sent troops to Korea as part of the UN force to help the South Korean Army at Pusan. 
       
      June-September 1950
      Phase Two

      On 15 September, the US General MacArthur led a UN amphibious landing at Inchon (near Seoul) behind the NKPA . Out of the 300,000 UN troops, 260,000 were Americans.
       
      In danger of being cut off, the NKPA had to retreat.   The Americans drove them back and recaptured South Korea. 125,000 NKPA prisoners were taken.
       
      On 7 October 1950 MacArthur invaded North Korea. He advanced as far as the Chinese border. He boasted that the Americans would be 'home by Christmas'.
      September - November 1950
      Phase Three

      The Americans landed more troops.  They used bombers.  
       
      The Chinese admitted to losing 390,000 men dead - UN sources put the figure at up to a million Chinese and half a million North Koreans dead.The US drove the Chinese back, but 54,000 American soldiers died doing so.
       
      MacArthur reached the 38
      th parallel in March 1951.

      He threatened to invade China.
      November 1950 - February 1951
      Phase Four

      Now the Chinese were alarmed.
       
      On 25 November, 200,000 Chinese troops ('People's Volunteers') attacked MacArthur. They had modern weapons supplied by Russia, and a fanatical hatred of the Americans.  
       
      Then, on 31 December, half a million more Chinese troops entered the war and attacked the Americans.   They drove the Americans back (using 'human wave tactics'). They recaptured North Korea, and advanced into South Korea.
      February - March 1951
      Phase Five

      Truman told MacArthur to stop and not step foot in China.
      As a result General MacArthur was sacked by President Truman, when he publicly criticised his order.  
       
      In 1953, Eisenhower, a General in World War II, became American president. 
      He criticised Truman’s approach to the war. He visited Korea and as a result initiated peace talks that began in July 1951.

      At the same time Americans hinted at the possible use of atomic bombs if China did not stop fighting in Korea. In addition, he got the South Koreans to drop some of their demands to secure a truce.
      March 1951 - June 1953
    • The end of the Korean War
      Peace and an armistice

      The Chinese & Koreans agreed to an armistice, which was signed on 27 July 1953 by them and the United Nations led by the USA.
      This was temporary until a peaceful settlement could be reached.

      As part of the armistice the following was agreed:
      . stop all fighting
      . POWs could decide where to go - North or South
      . a new border was agreed and a demilitarisation zone
      . establishment of a Military Armistice Commission (MAC) to ensure the truce held
      27th July 1953
      USA
      . 30,000 US troops were killed
      . USA thought the war was a success because South Korea did not become communist (Truman Doctrine)
      Post 1953
      Korea
      . North Korea seen as the ‘aggressor’
      . Over 750,000 North Korean & Chinese soldiers and civilians died
      . About 70,000 South Korean soldiers were killed
      . Over 500,000 South Korean civilians died in the war
      . Up to 80% of Korean industry was destroyed
      . Many North Koreans were made homeless

      Post 1953
      United Nations
      . 4,500 United Nations troops from other countries were killed
      . United Nations showed it could be decisive and strong (though largely because the Soviet Union was boycotting the UN)
      . Some people saw the USA controlling the UN
      Post 1953
      International Relations
      . relations between the superpowers declined
      . the Cold War spread from Europe to Asia
      . USSR set-up the Warsaw Pact in Europe
      . China announced itself onto the world stage, showing it was willing to stand up to the USA
      . SEATO - South Asian Treaty Organisation (similar to NATO)
      . The Arms Race intensified after the Korean War
      Post 1953

      Part Two: Escalation of conflict in Vietnam


      • The end of French colonial rule

        First Indochina War


        Background

        . French colony since C19th called IndoChina.
        . Rebellion in 1930s crushed by the French army.
        . WWII, 1940 French surrendered to Germans.
        . Japan (Germany’s allies) take over Vietnam from French.
        . WWII, anti-Japan resistance movement (Viet Minh) led by Ho Chi Minh, who wanted an end to colonial rule.
        . WWII, 1945 Allies victory meant France wanted Vietnam back, even though Ho Chi Minh had declared an independent Vietnam.
        . 1946 war broke out between Viet Minh & the French. Ho Chi Minh was a communist but kept quiet so not to upset USA.
        The USA was against colonialism.
        . 1949, Mao’s communist takeover in China meant support for the Viet Minh
        . 1950 USA now saw Ho Chi Minh as a communist enemy & friends with China. They gave $500 million pa to the French as part of their policy of containment.
        . French controlled the cities & the Viet Minh the countryside.
        . Viet Minh guerrilla tactics meant the French pulled out after defeat at Dien Bien Phu.
        . 1954 Peace Conference, Geneva Settlement
        saw Vietnam divided into North & South (along 17th parallel) until elections were held which the USA did not want as they feared a communist victory.
        Stacks Image 16037

        1939 before WWII, Vietnam was part of French Empire:
        French Indo China
        (Vietnam, Cambodia + Laos)
        Indo China had:
        . rice, corn, coal & rubber

        1940 France was defeated by Germany in WWII
        1941 France agreed that Japan could take resources from its colony as it was fighting China
        Consequences: Vietnamese starved as the Japanese took rice - up to 2.5 million died
        The Vietminh formed
        1941 Ho Chi Minh + Nguyen Vo Giap (communists) set up the
        League for the Independence of Vietnam a nationalist movement
        Aim: to establish an independent Vietnam (free from foreign rule e.g. France + Japan)
        Vietminh was based in South China, but got help from the USA (training & equipment).
        They the attacked French & Japanese using guerrilla tactics.
        1945 Japanese takeover
        They took control from the French, but in August surrendered to the USA in WWII & had to withdraw from all countries inc.Vietnam

        1945 Who to rule Vietnam?
        Vietminh quickly took over from French & Japanese:
        Sept. Ho Chi Minh announced Vietnam to be independent
        USA believed people should rule themselves - not colonial countries

        First Indochina War


        French return to Vietnam

        French return to Vietnam
        1945: Dec. 50,000 French troops took control of the south of Vietnam.
        French commander Leclerc said he had won by March 1946

        Vietminh guerrilla
        fighters disappeared
        when the French arrived
        & took back control when
        they left an area.

        Negotiations 1946
        Vietminh ‘controlled’ the North & the French the south. Ho went to Paris but no agreement only a ceasefire.
        French launch attack
        1946: Nov. French troops attacked the Vietminh in the north inc. Hanoi
        The Vietminh hide in the
        jungles - there was
        little fighting.

        1950 Cold War
        Korean War,
        McCarthyism,
        Truman Doctrine meant
        USA supporting French fight communists e.g. Vietminh & Ho

        USA send supplies to French to defeat Vietminh
        China
        . Communist took over in China in 1949 led by Mao Zedong
        . Mao supplied Vietminh with military equipment
        . USA scared communist would spread through Asia (domino theory)
        Stacks Image 16069

        First Indochina War


        French defeat and consequences

        Vietminh success
        1950: Giap had 100.000 well armed soldiers
        French 100,000 soldiers + 300,000 Vietnamese BUT cover huge area

        Vietminh guerrilla tactics
        Hiding in the jungles they could hit the French whenever they wanted.

        Giap tried a big attacks in 1950
        & 1951 but lost heavily against well defended French positions.

        Turning point: Dien Bien Phu
        Giap was determined to win a ‘big battle’. He choose Dien Bien Phu which defended one way into Laos.
        He had 60,000 men + 200 artillery guns. He tunnelled close to the French position. For several weeks the Vietminh attacked, until the French surrendered as they could not supply the base.
        Stacks Image 16091
        USA not help the French
        1954: France asked for US troops, but US had just fought in Korea so was not interested in another war.

        Geneva Agreement
        May 1954: France,UK, USA, China, Vietnam & USSR
        . After DBP France had had enough.
        Agreement:
        1. Vietnam divided into North & South
        North = Ho Chi Minh
        South = Ngo Dinh Diem
        2. Elections to be held July 1956

        Diem refused to accept the agreement & USA said they would support him (containment)
      • The US involvement

        USA involvement in the 1950s

        Already involvement

        USA had supported France since the end WWII.

        Given $500 million per year to help France inc. equipment

        After 1954, helped South Vietnam with money, equipment & military advisors.

        USA counter the support that North Vietnam was getting from USSR & China.

        Committed to supporting the South Vietnam government at Geneva Settlement. Backed unpopular leader Ngo Diem with $1.6 billion in 1950s.
        Truman Doctrine

        Policy of containment said USA to support anti-communists.

        Presidents Eisenhower in the 1950s and Kennedy after 1960 believed in the Domino Theory. If Vietnam became communist then other countries would follow: Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Burma, India etc
        Stacks Image 16105

        Kennedy Years: military build up


        1960 - 1963: Kennedy increased military advisors
        from 900 to 11,000

        1963: Vietcong take over 40% of S.Vietnamese countryside

        1963: President Johnson sends more help to stop Vietcong
        Johnson not a ‘war monger’ but not want to be seen as soft on communism
        Defence Sec. McNamara believed war was winnable

        Stacks Image 16128
      • Johnson's War

        The Johnson Years

        President Johnson's aims


        Public aim:
        . defeat communism (containment)
        . support democracy (S.Vietnam)

        Private aims:
        . save face for US and not be first President to lose a war

        BUT:
        . many in US not care about democracy in Vietnam
        . US supporting a corrupt S. Vietnam government

        President Johnson's methods


        Political:
        . Support democracy but alien to Vietnamese
        . Support educational, medical & social programmes

        Military:
        . Use bombing to win the war
        . Destroy VC supply routes

        BUT:
        . bombing made Vietnamese more determined
        . Chemical attacks turned US people against the war


        Public opinion


        Political:
        . Support democracy
        . Support educational, medical & social programmes

        Military:
        . Use bombing to win the war (save us lives)

        BUT:
        . Bombing killed civilians
        . Chemical attacks turned US people against the war


        US military tactics

        Bombing

        Operation Rolling Thunder (Feb. 1965 - 1972)
        . Targets:
        . industrial & military targets
        (initially approved by President)
        . then town & cities
        . then in Laos & Cambodia
        (Ho Chi Minh Trail)
        Result:
        . reduced number of soldiers needed
        . dropped more bombs than on Germany & Japan in WWII
        . damaged NV ability to fight the war
        . attacked Vietcong targets in South
        . 14,000 US bombers shot down
        . failed to stop the communists
        . Killing civilians (women & children) turned many in USA against the war


        Stacks Image 16190
        Chemical weapons

        Agent Orange & Napalm
        . It was a sort of ‘weedkiller’
        . Used to destroy the jungles, so the Vietcong had
        no hiding place
        Result:
        .
        Destroyed thousands of sq km of jungle
        . Burned & killed thousands of guerrilla fighters & civilians
        . Shocking pictures of women & children burned by chemical weapons turned public opinion against the war
        Stacks Image 16182
        Search and destory

        Search & destroy
        . Bombing was not winning the war
        . USA built strong bases in the south &
        launched attacks via helicopters
        . Result:
        . Some successes against Vietcong
        . Pointless attacks based on poor information
        . Vietcong often ‘vanished’ before attacks
        . Many civilians killed during attacks
        . Turned many peasants against the USA/South Vietnamese
        . My Lai Massacre turned US public opinion against the war
        Stacks Image 16174

        Problems for Johnson

        Problems in South Vietnam 1966-67
        Loss of McNamara 1967
        Public Opinion

        Government was corrupt & unpopular
        VC spies in the government and military
        Many South Vietnamese supported Ho Chi Minh

        McNamara (Defence Sec.) with JFK then Johnson
        McNamara responsible for military policy & tactics
        McNamara changed from saying easily winnable,
        to the war being unwinnable
        Replaced by Clark (advisor & friend of Johnson)


        Stacks Image 16217


        Members of Congress start criticising Johnson’s policies
        Buddhist nun sets herself on fire in protest in Vietnam
        Martin Luther King & other church leaders join
        anti-war protests
        Tax increases to pay for war, leads to more demonstrations
        Media turn against the war

        The Johnson Years

        Tet offensive
        Defence Secretary Clark
        Financial costs



        North Vietnamese VC attacked multiple targets in the South
        Attacked during Tet holiday surprising everyone
        Attacks were unsuccessful & the VC lost 60,000 soldiers

        BUT: US shocked by size of attack, confidence shaken
        US intelligence failed & 10,000 US/South troops killed
        People in USA shocked by what their saw
        US media showed it as a failure for the USA
        Realised USA did not have a plan to win in Vietnam
        (policy of not losing to save face)
        By March 1968 Clark was telling President Johnson the war was unwinnable
        Stacks Image 16253
        Great Society spending cut as military spending increased
        Deficit: from $1.6 billion (1963) to $25.3 billion (1968)
        Inflation increased + people not want to pay increase in tax to pay for war

        Public opinion
        TV coverage: bombing & chemical attacks turned people against war
        Mai Lai incident shocked people around the world
        Opinion: win the war or get out


        President Johnson
        TV coverage
        Public Opinion

        Johnson’s health suffered
        Advisors started looking at peace options
        Bombing stopped whilst peace talks held
        BUT: Peace difficult as North Vietnamese not want
        to compromise
        Johnson in a weak negotiating position
        TV coverage: bombing & chemical attacks turned people against war
        Mai Lai incident shocked people around the world
        Opinion: win the war or get out
        TV coverage: bombing & chemical attacks turned people against war
        Mai Lai incident shocked people around the world
        Opinion: win the war or get out

        The My Lai Massacre 1968 - 1970
        Event: Unit of soldiers (Charlie Company) on a ‘search & destroy mission’.
        Attacked what they thought was a Vietcong stronghold.
        After 3 / 4 hours 300-400 civilians were dead inc. women & children.
        There were no Vietcong & only 3 weapons found.
        Official report: only 20 civilians killed, the rest were Vietcong.
        The soldiers were praised for their actions.
        The letter: Soldier Ridenhour who knew many soldiers at
        My Lai wrote a letter to politicians & officials in Washington
        saying what really happened there.
        Life Magazine: published photos of the massacre.
        Investigation: Lieutenant Calley was charged with murder and others were also charged, but the army made Calley solely responsible & said he was not acting on orders. Calley was sentenced to 20 years hard labour. (He was released after 3 years).
        The events of My Lai shocked the US people.
        The Peace Movement
        Peace movement: no longer hippies & students but ordinary middle class people who wanted an end to the ‘pointless’ war.

        My Lai Massacre: after the incident came to light
        over 500,000 people protested against in the war in
        Washington DC. The largest protest ever in the USA.

        Politics: to be pro-war was political suicide for
        most politicians. Nixon was very anti-communist
        but had to be against the war or at least
        pro peace to get elected in 1968


Edexcel IGCSE History

  • Russia, 1917-1941: Timeline


    Russia in 1917


    Russia in 1917 was a largely agricultural society, ruled by a Tsar, who had almost total power. Most people lived in poverty.

    Russian society
    Farming
    Over 85% of Russians were farmers. Most were poor.(peasants)
    Industry
    Russia was behind most of Europe and had few factories. By 1914, Russia had railways and more factories.

    People
    Russia is a huge country, with many ethnic groups. Only half the people spoke Russian.
    Most people were Christian, plus some Muslims and Jews.
    Russian society
    RULING CLASS 1%
    Royal Family = very rich
    UPPER CLASS 12%
    Military officers, top govt. officials, landowners
    BUSINESSMEN 2%
    Bankers, traders, business owners (Capitalist)
    FACTORY WORKERS 5%
    Very poor, worked long hours for low wages, often short of food
    PEASANTS 80%
    Farmers were very poor, often hungry. Many farmers owed money
    to the landowners.
    Some went to the cities to find work.


    Stacks Image 18218
    Tsar Nicholas II
    Total power over everything and everybody - made all the laws
    Civil Service
    Minister in charge of each department. Carried out the Tsar's laws.
    Collected taxes.
    Army
    Tsar was head of the army - over 2 million soldiers. They helped the police
    Secret Police (Okhrana)
    Arrested people who were critical of the Tsar

    1917

    Social Democratic Workers' Party


    Opposition to the Tsar
    Social Democrats
    followed the ideas of Karl Marx.
    They were against
    capitalists:
    businessmen, landowners and thought the poor workers will rise up against them in a revolution
    Everything will then be shared out equally - no more very rich and very poor.
    The factories, businesses, banks etc. controlled by the govt on behalf of the people


    Stacks Image 18231

    Karl Marx


    Stacks Image 18244

    Lenin

    Social Democrats split into two groups:
    Bolsheviks (Lenin)
    . small group who would take power for the poor workers
    Mensheviks
    . wanted a large group of supporters for large revolution
    . join with other groups

    Other groups who opposed the Tsar
    Liberals
    Keep the Tsar but chose politicians to make laws - no revolution
    Social Revolutionnaires
    Take land away from the landowners and Chursh and give to the poor.

    Use violence to take the land if necessary

    1917

    Rasputin


    Stacks Image 18262

    Rasputin

    Rasputin
    Holy Man
    Rasputin claimed to be a holy man with special powers.
    Stopped the bleeding of Alexi, the Tsar's son.

    Influence on the Tsar
    Rasputin became an advisor to the Tsar.
    Was hated by many for be
    ing a drinker and womaniser and being from a 'low class'.
    Became more powerful after Stolypin died.
    People disliked the Tsar because of Rasputin.

    1917

    World War I


    Consequences of WWI
    Russian army
    Success against Austria then a series of military defeats by the Germans at Tannenburg & Masurian Lakes.
    Loss of morale with 1 million killed, wounded or taken prisoner
    Tsar - in charge of Army and blamed for the defeats

    Russian home front
    Food shortages:
    . less food produced as men conscripted into army
    . food not getting to the cities

    . prices rose
    Fuel:
    . lack of coal for factories meant many closed
    . people lost their jobs & had no coal for heating
    Tsarina
    In charge of the country during WWI
    as Tsar took charge of the army
    Duma government
    . ignored by Tsarina, sacked ministers & replaced with 'friends'
    . government stopped working


    Rasputin
    . Tsarina took advice from Rasputin until his murder in 1916
    . Tsarina was German & became more unpopular
    Stacks Image 18287
    Stacks Image 18284
    Problems: from WWI
    People hungry and cold = revolution?
    From wanting food & fuel, it became open hatred for the Tsar and Tsarina.
    Tsar ordered demonstrations to be stopped by force.

    1914-1917

    1917 Revolution


    Time line of events: March 1917

    7th: 20,000 steelworkers fall out with the bosses over pay and are locked out of the factory, other workers join them on strike

    8th: International Women's Day: women protest wanting bread to eat, workers join them

    10th: Half the workers go on strike and protest in Petrograd The Tsar orders the army to end the protests

    11th: Soldiers shoot protesters. The Tsar orders the Duma to stop meeting

    12th: Soldiers (mutiny) refuse to shoot the protesters Soldiers and workers set-up their own govt. (Soviet) The Duma sets up it's own 'Provisional Government'

    14th: Army generals tell the Tsar the army does not support him, they now support the workers

    15th: Tsar Nicholas resigns (abdicates), his brother does not want to be the new Tsar

    16th:
    End of the Romanov family ruling Russia

    March 1917

    Provisional government


    Provisional Government
    . Members of the Duma
    . Rule until people choose a group (assembly) to work out a new system of government
    Tsar abdicates
    . Tsar abdicates on 15 March
    . Hands over to his brother who refuses it
    Petrograd Soviet
    . A council of deputies representing the soldiers and workers
    . Many deputies were Mensheviks who wanted a revolution
    . Wanted to share power with the Provisional Government

    March 1917

    April Theses


    Lenin's April Theses
    - Bolshevik revolution
    1. end to the war
    2. land given to the peasants
    3. factories & banks owned by the state
    4. change to be communists


    Bolsheviks
    . Members from 26,000 to 2,000,000
    . Propaganda via newspapers 'Pravda'

    . Local committees in factories etc
    . Germans gave money to help

    . Formed private army 'Red Guards'
    Bolshevik slogans:

    'Peace, bread and land'
    Make peace with the Germans and end WWI
    Give the peasants land (to win their support)
    Solve the food shortages in the towns and cities


    'All power to the Soviets'

    April 1917

    Kerensky


    Events
    . Alexander Kerensky becomes Prime Minister of the Provisional Government until November

    Stacks Image 18351

    July 1917

    July Days


    Events
    . Failure of 'June Offensive' led to anger: workers, soldiers & sailors rioted
    . The Bolsheviks took part in riots


    Consequences
    . Government stopped riots
    . Bolsheviks arrested, Lenin fled to Finland, party struggling to function

    July 1917

    Kornilov Revolt


    Events
    . General Kornilov (Right wing Army Commander-in-Chief) tried to seize power
    . Prime Minister Kerensky asked the Bolsheviks to help fight against Kornilov, gave them weapons & released their leaders
    . The Bolsheviks persuaded Kornilov's troops to desert


    Consequences
    . Bolsheviks seen by many as heroes, Kerensky looked weaker
    . Won a majority in Petrograd Soviet
    . Became a well armed fighting force

    15 September 1917

    Petrograd


    Bolsheviks
    . Bolsheviks took over Moscow
    . Bolsheviks take control of Petrograd


    6 October 1917

    Lenin returns


    Lenin
    . Lenin returns from exile to begin the the Bolsheviks


    23 October 1917

    1917 Revolution


    6th: (evening)
    Bolshevik 'Red Guards' take over key roads, bridges, telephone exchange & power stations

    6 November 1917

    1917 Revolution


    7th: (morning) 'Red Guards' take over banks, govt. buildings & railway stations
    Kerensky left the city realising he had little support

    (evening) Russian Cruiser 'Aurora' fires on the Winter Palace
    Red Guards met little resistance, govt. ministers arrested


    7 November 1917

    1917 Revolution




    Lenin forms new Bolshevik government


    8 November 1917

    Bolshevik government


    Bolsheviks take control
    Government
    . Mensheviks left the govt. giving Bolsheviks total control
    . Elections for new Constituent Assembly put Bolsheviks in second place
    Revolution
    . Fighting continued across Russia inc. Moscow
    . Bolsheviks did not control all of Russia
    . Arrests & executions without trial, of anyone who spoke against the Bolsheviks

    November 1917

    Secret police


    Cheka
    . Set-up by Lenin in Dec 1917
    . HQ in 'Lubyanka' in Moscow
    . Arrested opposition
    . After assassination attempt on Lenin, launched 'Red Terror'
    . Arrests & executions without trial, of anyone who spoke against the Bolsheviks

    December 1917

    Consistent assembly


    Government
    . Elections for new Constituent Assembly put Bolsheviks in second place
    . In January 1918 Lenin sent in soldiers & closed down the Assembly with 100 demonstrators killed or wounded

    Bolshevik changes
    Newspapers
    . All non Bolshevik papers banned

    Land
    . All land taken off landowners (Tsar, Nobles, Church etc)
    . Committees divide land fairly

    Other
    . No titles e.g. Duke/Lord etc
    . Women equal to men
    . Banks taken over
    . Army officers elected
    . Divorce made easier
    Workers
    . Factory workers: 8 hour day/48 hour week
    . Committees run factories
    . Insurance for workers: injuries, illness & unemployment

    Peace with Germany
    . Peace at any price to keep support
    of army & Russian people
    . Treaty of Brest-Litovsk:
    lost 25% best farmland, 75% coal & iron ore deposits & 25% population


    sentiment_very_satisfied
    January 1918

    Civil War 1918 - 1921


    1918 Bolsheviks became the Communists
    Theory:
    Communist party represented the will of the people through the Soviets (councils of factory workers, peasants etc.)
    Reality: Communist Party controlled all aspects of the govt
    Communist Party Government
    Politburo: Senior party members who make important decisions
    Council of Peoples' Commissars led govt depts
    Secretariat: carries out Politburo decisions
    Central Executive Committee: 200 members elected by Soviets
    Central Committee: elected by Party runs the Party
    Party Congress: representatives of local Party branches

    Civil war: Reds v Whites


    REDS
    The Bolsheviks or Communists
    AIM: to stay in power to continue the revolution


    Greens
    Independent groups fighting for their own cause not to take over Russia
    WHITES
    The opponents of the Bolsheviks:Tsarists, Democrats, Landlords, other Socialists
    AIMS: each group something different, a dictator, a revolution
    or democracy

    Foreigners
    Britain, France, Japan & USA +sent supplies & forces.
    Stop revolutionary ideas spreading

    Czech Legion
    Czech ex prisoners of war, fell out with Bolsheviks.
    Took over railway, helped Whites & marched on Moscow

    sentiment_very_satisfied
    1918

    War communism


    Aim: introduce Lenin's ideas and ensure the Red army was supplied during the civil war

    Means of production (factories)
    . took control of factories & what they produced (Council of National Economy)
    . workers' committees not work so Lenin put managers in charge
    . strict discipline introduced in factories
    . strikes and protests
    made illegal
    Money
    . Government printed money to pay for war causing hyper inflation
    . Money became worthless (worth 1% of its 1917 value)
    . People often paid in food & bartering
    became common

    Food
    . Food rationed in the cities: as low as 200 grams of bread a day
    . Ration cards only if you were working
    Countryside / peasants
    . peasants not want to sell surplus, so the Cheka took it off them
    . punishment for any peasants found hoarding food or selling it at a profit
    . led to a struggle between peasants and communists
    . peasants produced less as any surplus was taken away
    Terror
    . The Cheka's role became more and more important
    . 'Red Terror' saw people arrested, imprisoned & shot without trial
    . Many people thought things were as bad or worse than under the Tsar

    Result: . Production of everything fell dramatically . Famine struck in 1921 - aid was sent from around the world inc. USA

    1918

    Reds victory in Civil War


    Reasons the Reds (Communists) won the Civil war


    Leadership - Trotsky
    . Red Army with professional officers
    . motivated soldiers (rewards + punishments)
    . excellent military tactics


    War Communism
    . kept soldiers supplied with food & weapons
    White disunity
    . no strong leader
    . little coordination
    . poor communication
    . different armies
    fighting individually
    . groups often fell out with each other
    . Allies withdrew forces in 1919
    . little support in many areas of Russia
    Popularity
    . changes made by Bolsheviks made them popular with peasants & factory workers
    CHEKA
    . punished anyone who helped Whites
    . forced peasants to hand over food

    1921

    Lenin's New Economic Policy


    Aim: improve the economy after the failures of War communism

    Peasants
    . Peasants could sell any surplus after giving a certain amount to the govt.
    Business
    . Traders could buy & sell & keep the profit
    . Factories making consumer goods returned to owners who were allowed to make a profit
    Large industry
    . Stay under govt control, some private selling allowed
    Foreign trade
    . Lenin encouraged trade with the West: Russian oil for western industrial goods
    Electrification
    . Electrification of Russia - network of power stations to power modern industry
    Results
    . Improved modernisation of Russia, better living standards but unemployment high
    . Some peasants got rich, most remained poor
    . Many communist disliked the profit making & resented the businessmen making large profits
    Life under Lenin
    Education

    Education was a priority for communists. They built lots of schools & launched a massive literacy programme across the country. carried out by members of the Young Communist League (Komsomol).
    Communist propaganda went into the countryside via posters, films etc
    Religion
    Communists saw religion as a con to get people to accept poor conditions in the hope of going to heaven. Teaching religion was banned to under 15 year olds.
    Some churches were closed.
    Equality
    Ranks & titles were abolished
    Women treated equally
    Divorce made easier
    Abortion more available
    Arts
    Experimentation was encouraged

    Art was with a practical purpose
    There was equality in the arts

    Results:
    . Improved modernisation of Russia, better living standards but unemployment high
    . Some peasants got rich, most remained poor
    . Many communists disliked the profit making & resented the businessmen making large profits


    1921

    Kronstradt rebellion


    Opposition to Lenin's policies
    Workers' Opposition
    . wanted higher wages
    . better living conditions
    . a stop to Cheka arrests
    Wanted " Soviets without Communist"
    Kronstadt Sailors
    . uprising at their naval base outside Petrograd
    . The 'Red Kronstadters' had fought with the Bolsheviks in 1917
    . life under communists become
    unbearable they wanted:
    . freedom of speech & assembly
    . socialist political prisoners freed
    . their uprising shocked Lenin
    . Trotsky sent in the Red Army & 20,000 were killed or wounded, many via labour camps in Siberia


    1921

    Death of Lenin

    The Death of Lenin
    . Died in January 1924
    . Suffered a series of strokes since 1922
    . Exhausted from the pressures & long hours

    . Petrograd renamed Leningrad
    Lenin's warning
    " Comrade Stalin having become General Secretary, has great power concentrated in his hands and I am not sure he always knows how to use that power with sufficient caution…… Stalin is too rude … find a way to remove Stalin from that post…."
    Stacks Image 18596

    1924

    After Lenin


    Leadership battle after Lenin's death


    Leon Trotsky

    STRENGTHS
    . Obvious choice to succeed Lenin
    . Well known & popular
    . Intelligent & good speaker
    . Hero for leading the 1917 revolution & the Red Army to victory in the
    Civil War
    WEAKNESSES
    . Arrogant
    . Ignored party politics
    . Some senior communists feared he would become a dictator with support from the Red Army
    . Was a sick man
    IDEAS
    . Believed in 'Permanent Revolution' and spreading communism around
    the world
    . Scrap NEP, take land & factories from peasants & workers, no more profit
    Stacks Image 18620
    Stacks Image 18617

    Joseph Stalin

    STRENGTHS
    . General Secretary of the Party was a very important position
    . Very good at party politics
    . Had expelled many Trotsky supporters
    . Many senior communists owed their positions to Stalin
    . Safe, not have extreme views
    WEAKNESSES
    . Dull & boring
    . Poor speaker
    . Not intellectual
    . Not seen as leadership material
    IDEAS
    . Believed in 'Socialism in One Country' - look after Russia first
    . Keep NEP for 20 years
    . Make Russia strong first then socialism

    1924

    USSR consitution


    1923 Constitution: created USSR - Union of Soviet Socialist Republics manage own affairs except defence & foreign policy

    1923

    Stalin's rise to power


    1924
    Helped Lenin to be a hero
    Showed himself as best friend of Lenin
    Tricked Trotsky into not attended Lenin's funeral
    Lenin's wishes that Stalin be sacked were ignored
    as Stalin's friends blocked the truth.

    1924

    Stalin's rise to power



    1925
    Stalin persuaded others that Trotsky's idea of 'Permanent Revolution was dangerous for all.


    1925

    Stalin's rise to power


    1926 - 1927
    Trotsky sacked as 'Commissar for War'.
    Trotsky and his allies were dismissed from the Politburo.


    1926-1927

    Cult of personality


    Propaganda & Cult of Personality
    Even before Stalin became leader he was using propaganda to develop his 'cult of personality'. He wished to be worshipped as a leader, like a God.
    . pictures & statues of Stalin everywhere
    . places named after him
    . clapping whenever his name was spoken
    Secret police
    . Arrested opponents
    . Scared people to control them
    Censorship
    . Everything was censored: newspapers, films, art & music to show communism was working and Stalin was a great leader & people were working hard. Many writers & artists left the country.

    Stacks Image 18688
    Stacks Image 18685
    Stacks Image 18682
    Stacks Image 18679

    1927

    Collectivisation 1927


    Voluntary Collectivisation
    Government announces policy of collectivisation
    Few peasants take the opportunity to collectivise.
    Shortages of food in the cities, means Stalin forces the peasants to hand over food

    1927

    Stalin's rise to power


    1928 - 1929
    Stalin now wanted to scrap the NEP & build up industry.
    Leading Communists resigned from the Politburo. All Stalin's main opponents had gone.

    Trotsky exiled then killed
    Lived in Turkey, then Norway & Mexico, constant critic of Stalin. In 1940 he was killed.

    1928 - 1929

    Collectivisation


    Compulsory Collectivisation
    Stalin introduces compulsory collectivisation
    Peasants resisted, many killed their animals rather than hand them over
    There was temporary halt in 1930 as Stalin feared an entire harvests would be ruined, but continued again as soon as the harvest was in
    Stalin uses the army, police & secret police to force the peasants
    Kulaks are blamed the most, arrested & shot 'dekulakisation'

    1928

    Five Year Plan 1928 - 1933


    Stalin's priority was to industrialise the USSR:
    . match capitalism in terms of industrial production
    . benefit everyone in the country: the basis of communism



    Five Year Plans:
    State Planning Commission (GOSPLAN) set targets for key industries
    Aim:
    . focus on heavy industry
    . targets very high, but increases in all areas


    Industrial production
    Production increased:
    1. Community spirit
    Young people wanted to improve the country through these big projects
    2. Propaganda
    Workers were encouraged to work harder through
    poster campaigns, newspapers, cinema & heroes
    Stakhanovites: heroic workers who worked hard, in newspapers & posters
    3. Rewards
    Awards & honours for the best workers. There were competitions between individuals & teams.
    Stakhanovites were rewarded with better housing, holidays & cash bonuses.

    Wages were often based on 'piece-rates' - on how much workers produced.
    4. Punishments
    Anyone not seen to be working hard enough could be accused of being 'saboteurs' & thus sent to labour camps.
    Absenteeism was punished with fines, or loss of ration cards or being sacked.
    Labour books were carried by every worker. The books had to have good comments or they could lose food rations or face prison.


    1928

    Collectivisation


    Collectivisation amendments
    Peasants allowed to own a small plot & keep some animals.
    Private plots more productive.



    1930

    Stalin's purges


    First purges 1930 -1933
    Aimed at anyone getting in the way of Stalin's policies of industrialisation & collectivisation
    e.g. factory managers/workers - peasants & kulaks
    Arrested & sent to prisons or labour camps
    Stacks Image 18757

    1930

    Second Five Year Plan 1933 - 1937


    Stalin's priority was to industrialise the USSR:
    . match capitalism in terms of industrial production
    . benefit everyone in the country: the basis of communism



    Five Year Plans:
    State Planning Commission (GOSPLAN) set targets for key industries
    Aim:
    focus on heavy industry plus railways, chemicals, metallurgy

    Consequences fo the Five Year Plans

    Industrial centres
    . new industrial cities
    e.g. Magnitogorsk
    . access raw material
    . away from possible invaders

    Power & Transport
    . Huge power projects e.g. Dneiper Dam
    . Canals & railways connecting industrial centres & cities

    Industrialisation
    . went from underdeveloped to second
    largest industrialised country

    Managers
    . workers' committees were replaced with managers (sometimes foreigners)
    . managers were well rewarded for achieving the targets

    Skills
    . highly skilled workers
    e.g. engineers

    Outside help
    . specialists brought in from the West
    e.g. Ford from the USA helped USSR car industry
    . Dneiper Dam was supervised by an American
    Forced Labour
    . many of the major projects were built with forced labour, often peasants as well as political prisoners

    1933

    Stalin's Great Purge


    Great purge 1934 - 1938
    Aimed at Communist Party leaders & Armed Forces
    e.g. 1108 out of 1966 delegates at 17th Congress arrested
    Anyone with links to opponents sent to labour camps or shot
    Red Army Commander-in-Chief + 7 others arrested & shot (all heroes from the Civil War)

    Most naval officers & 50% army officers were shot

    Show Trials (Moscow Trials)
    . Trials of important Communists
    . Broadcast on radio
    . Crimes were laughable
    . Evidence often ridiculous
    BUT
    . They 'confessed' to the crimes & were found guilty including:
    Zinoviev, Kamenev, Yagoda & Bukharin
    Consequences
    . People lived in a permanent state of fear - telling on your neighbour was being loyal!
    . Armed forces lack experienced officers as WWII approached
    . Total power to Stalin - all opponents dead or too scared to act

    1934

    Life in the USSR in the 1930s


    Women
    . equality for women was a main theme for the communists
    . also women were needed to work to achieve the 5 Year Plans
    . women held management positions
    . encouraged to have children
    . work places had creches so mothers could work
    . in the 1930s many of the ideas of the 1920s were abandoned e.g. easy abortions & divorce
    . Stalin wanted families to stay together
    . child allowances were paid to married couples


    Home life
    . living standards slowly improved in the 1930s
    . food rationing improved after 1934
    . consumer goods were still difficult to buy e.g. clothes
    . high ranking party members, skilled workers & some peasants did well
    . health care improved with thousands of new hospitals built
    . all children received free education
    . crime & alcoholism increased

    . black market thrived with so many shortages
    Religion
    . all religions were attacked by Stalin
    . worshiping in a church or mosque became difficult
    . most places of worship were closed
    . people were encouraged to be atheist
    . the Russian Orthodox Church was seen as beingTsarist under Lenin

    Art, Literature & Music
    . had to members of a union
    . keep to union rules
    . everything had to reflect 'socialist spirit'
    . research had to follow marxist thinking
    . art = 'Socialist Realism'
    Work life
    . average wages fell between 1928 - 1933 by 50%
    (see Stalin's Economic Policies)
    . factories were driven by targets
    . quality was often poor
    . some workers were paid higher wages: scientists, engineers, teachers, factory managers etc + better housing & more consumer goods
    . every worker was allowed to take a holiday each year
    . many work places including collectives, also provided leisure activities:

    clubs, sports, film shows, festivals
    Labour Camps
    GULAGS

    For millions of people this was their experience of life under Stalin's communism.

    Camps were all over the USSR but most were in the frozen north - Siberia.
    The camps were full of:
    . peasants
    . kulaks
    . saboteurs
    . soldiers
    . politcal prisoners
    up to 2 million at a time


    Many of the USSR's major projects were built using forced labour:
    . Belomar Canal 1931-33
    (White Sea Canal)
    . over 100,000 workers at one time dug 141 miles in less than two years often with their bare hands
    (some say 20,000 people died during its construction)


    Other projects included:
    . Volga River canal
    . the dam and power station at Dneprostroi
    . industrial city of Magnitka
    . Moscow Metro


    Mines
    . many in the camps worked in the mines e.g. digging for gold at Kolyma

    1930s
  • Germany 1918 - 1939: Timeline


    Kaiser abdicates


    Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on 9 November and Fredreich Ebert (leader of the Social Democratic Party) made himself Chancellor and formed a new government.
    Initially the Kaiser refused to surrender but the Allies would not sign the armistice until he did.
    Sailers in Kiel mutinied.


    9 November 1818

    Germany surrenders


    The new govt. surrendered to the Allies on 11 November 1918.

    11 November 1918

    Protests


    Protests and attempted revolutions by right and left wing groups were held across cities in Germany.

    November 1918

    Spartacists uprising


    Stacks Image 19652
    Spartacus League
    .
    Leaders: Rosa Luxembourg + Karl Liebknecht

    . Against the rich ruling Germany
    . Tried a communist revolution in Berlin
    . Defeated in two weeks by Freikorps


    5 January 1919

    Weimar National Assembly


    Stacks Image 19668

    National Assembly
    .
    Drafts the new republic's constitution
    . Friedrich Ebert is elected President
    . System of proportional representation used

    February 1919

    Treaty of Versailles


    Stacks Image 19682
    Germany signs the Treaty of Versailles and is force to accept blame for the war.

    PUNISHMENT FOR GERMANY
    PUNISHMENT FOR GERMANY
    LAND
    . Colonies taken away
    . Land given to Poland, France
    & Belgium & Saarland given to League for 15 years
    . Split into two parts: Germany & East Prussia

    MILITARY
    . Army = 100,000 men
    . No Tanks
    . Navy = 6 ships
    . No submarines
    . No airforce
    . No army in the Rhineland

    MONEY
    . Pay reparations (cost of the war) of £6,600 million over 42 years
    ALLIANCES
    . Germany not allowed to unite with Austria
    BLAME
    . War Guilt - Germany
    had to admit that the war was their fault
    DICTAT - the dictated peace

    28 June 1919

    Weimar constitution


    Weimar constitution is signed


    11 August 1919

    German Workers' Party


    Formation
    . Party formed by Anton Drexler and Karl Harrer as nationalist and anti semitic
    . Drexler invited Hitler to join after he was initially employed to spy on the party!

    11 August 1919

    Kapp Putsch


    Freikorps - Kapp Putsch
    . Leader: Dr Kapp
    . Hated communists & Peace Treaty
    . Army would not go against Freikorps
    . Workers of Berlin went on strike against the Freikorps & the revolt ended after 4 days
    Stacks Image 19726

    March 1920

    Hitler becomes party leader


    Adolf Hitler
    . Hitler becomes leader of the Socialist Workers' Party
    Stacks Image 19742

    28 July 1921

    Occupation of the Ruhr


    Stacks Image 19756
    Invasion of the Ruhr
    . French & Belgium troops invaded the Ruhr as Germany stopped paying reparations, they took goods e.g. coal instead of money
    . This was humiliating for Germany & made the Weimar govt. look weak

    11 January 1923

    Hyperinflation


    Stacks Image 19769
    Hyper-inflation
    Money became worthless as the government printed more & more to pay the reparations & pay the striking workers in the Ruhr.
    e.g. 1918 bread = 0.6 marks
    1923 bread = 250 marks

    1923

    Stresemann becomes Chancellor


    Stacks Image 19782
    Stresemann was Chancellor of a coalition govt. in 1923:
    . created a new currency the Rentenmark
    . ordered striking workers in the Ruhr back to work
    . agreed to pay reparations again (this made him unpopular)

    1923

    New currency


    Stacks Image 19795
    New currency - the Rentenmark ended the hyperinflation.
    . People had confidence in the rentenmark

    1923

    Munich Putsch


    Stacks Image 19808
    Why?
    . hoped for army support him
    . thought Bavarian govt would help him

    Failure
    . Army & police stopped the Nazis
    . Hitler & Lindenburg were arrested

    Trial
    . Hitler, Lindenburg, Rohm & others on trial
    Success
    . Gave Hitler a a chance to be famous
    . Judges were lenient - Hitler sentenced to only 9 months in prison - had own room & allowed visitors

    . Party was banned


    8 November 1923

    Dawes Plan


    . USA lends money to Germany.
    . The money is spent building factories to make profits for Germany - Germany pays reparations to France & Britain
    . France & Britain pays back money it owes to USA for WWI loans

    . Germany factories had brand new machinery and adopted US assembly line techniques.
    . The German economy grew quicker than in France or Britain.

    1924

    Mein Kampf


    . Mein Kampf written by Hitler is published - setting out his ideas

    1925

    Nazi Party reformed


    . Party's ban ended on 27 February 1925
    . Same day Hitler reformed the Nazi Party


    1925

    Locarno Pact


    . Germany, France & Belgium agreed not to attack each other
    . Agreed to keep the borders as they are


    1925

    League of Nations


    . Stresemann took Germany into the League of Nations
    . He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
    . Germany back on the world stage after theTreaty of Versailles

    1926

    Hitler Youth


    . Formed out of different organisations
    . Came under the SA
    Stacks Image 19878

    1926

    Kellogg-Briand Pact


    . 60 countries inc. Germany signed a pact agreeing not to attack each other

    1928

    1928 Elections


    Stacks Image 19908
    Stacks Image 19905

    1928

    Young Plan


    . Reparations reduced by 25%
    . Reparations to be paid over next 58 years
    . USA continued to lend Germany money as economy grew

    1929

    Wall Street Crash


    . Share price collapsed companies became worthless
    . Banks went
    bankrupt
    . Businesses closed
    people lost their jobs
    . Unemployment increased
    less money to buy goods
    . Demand for goods fell and other countries went into
    depression

    October 1929

    Economic depression


    Unemployment
    1929: 1.25 million (8%)
    1930: 4 million (15%)
    1933: 6+ million (30%)
    60 % of university graduates had no job

    Dawes Plan
    USA stopped new loans and demanded old loans be repaid
    Industry
    1932: Industrial production down 58%

    Exports
    1930: USA put tariffs on imports = German companies could not export (sell) to the USA

    1930

    Bruning government


    Government had many problems when the depression hit Germany:
    . more money needed to help unemployed people
    . less money from taxes as fewer people worked

    Government not have enough money to help the people

    . not print money because it causes inflation so:
    March 1930 Bruning wanted: to raise taxes 2.5% on govt. workers
    cut wages by 23%
    cut unemployment benefit by 5%
    . other political parties did not want this so Bruning used President decrees

    1930

    Von Papen government


    Bruning resigned in May 1932 as unemployment kept rising
    . Von Papen became Chancellor & he called elections for July 1932
    . People wanted a strong leader & Hitler (Nazis) won most seats
    . Von Papen stayed as Chancellor & called for another election in Nov 1932
    . Schleicher became new Chancellor as Nazis got less votes

    1932

    July 1932 Elections


    . The Nazis were the largest party in the Reichstag
    . Nazis won 37% of the vote
    Stacks Image 19986
    Stacks Image 19983

    July 1932

    November 1932 Elections


    Stacks Image 20002
    Stacks Image 19999

    November 1932

    Hitler appointed Chancellor


    . Von Schleider resigns after Hindenburg refuses to rule by decree & he does not have Reichstag support
    . President Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of Germany

    30 January 1933

    Reichstag Fire


    Stacks Image 20024
    . The Reichstag building caught fire.
    . One of first people there was Goering who immediately blamed the communists.
    . Hitler told Von Papen that is was the start of a communist revolution and wanted to arrest all the communist leaders. A young Dutchman named Lubbe was arrested - and he admitted he did it, but that he was not a communist. Later he said he was a communist.
    . Others including the communist leader Torgler were arrested
    . Many people including many foreign newspapers at the time said the fire was the work of the Nazis.


    27 February 1933

    Communist party banned


    . Hitler used his powers of Chancellor to issue a decree to ban the communist party

    28 February 1933

    Propaganda


    . Goebbels appointed as Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda
    Newspapers: only pro Nazi papers allowed
    Radios: Nazi controlled, radios cheap so
    everyone could have one, inc. cafes & factories.
    Movies: all films checked, over 100 per year
    Books: no Jewish or Communist writers allowed,
    Music: no music by black musicians
    Art: only approved art allowed
    Schools: told what to teach, history pro nazi
    Stacks Image 20050

    14 March 1933

    Enabling Act


    Stacks Image 20064
    . The Enabling Act gave emergency powers to Hitler - to rule by decree for four years.

    23 March 1933

    Concentration camps


    Stacks Image 20077
    . Concentration camps established
    . Initially held people under 'protective custody' - political enemies of the Nazis e.g. Communists + Trade unionists
    . Camps reported in the newspapers as a good thing in 1933
    . Camp expansion under the SS after 1937
    . 'Undesirables' sent to camps including Jews, Slavs, Gypsies, homosexuals etc

    March 1933

    Boycott of Jewish businesses


    . Hitler ordered the SA to make life difficult for the Jews
    . Shops were smashed, people stopped using Jewish businesses, lawyers etc
    Stacks Image 20092

    1 April 1933

    Gestapo established


    . Goring established the secret police - the Gestapo then led by Heydrich
    . Aim was to stop any ideas other than Nazi ideas.
    . 'Enemies of the State' were dealt with severely.
    . Everyone feared the Gestapo.

    April 1933

    Night of the Long Knives


    SS murdered Rohm & other SA leaders.
    . SA forced to merge with German army.
    . Feared Rohm as possible rival, SA not really under Hitler's control & it's actions too violent at times.
    . Served as a warning to other Nazis.
    . German Army not like SA & Hitler needed army support.

    30 June 1934

    President Hindenburg dies

    Hitler become Fuhrer


    . Hindenburg dies of lung cancer
    . Hitler proclaims the merging of the roles of Chancellor and President
    . Hitler becomes the Fuhrer
    Stacks Image 20132

    2 August 1934

    Nuremburg Laws


    . Jews lost German citizenship
    . Jews not marry non Jews
    . Jews banned from public facilities
    . German schools taught children to hate the Jews


    15 September 1935

    Berlin Olympic Games


    . Berlin hosted the summer Olympics
    . Hitler used this for propaganda purposes
    Stacks Image 20159

    15 September 1935

    World War II


    . On 1 September 1939 Germany invaded Poland.

    1 September 1939

    Kristallnacht


    . In 1938 a German diplomat in Paris was killed by a Jew whose family had been expelled from Germany
    . The Nazis launched an attack on Jews, destroying businesses and over 30,000 were sent to concentration camps.
    Stacks Image 20191

    1938
  • Superpower Relations and the Cold War: Timeline

    • Origins of the Cold War, 1941-1958

      Tehran Conference


      Tehran Conference mainly talked about military issues, but Poland's borders were discussed. USA/GB wanted Stalin's help in defeating Germany - Stalin used this to get his way over controlling Eastern Europe after the war.

      Stacks Image 21133
      Stalin (USSR)
      Roosevelt (USA)
      Churchill (UK)

      Agreement
      Germany

      . Operation Overlord (D-Day) approved
      . work closely together to defeat Germany
      . Germans to return from Eastern Europe
      Turkey
      . get Turkey on their
      side against Germany

      Tensions
      Germany
      . Stalin wanted to kill German officers so
      they could not start another war
      Poland
      . discussions about the borders for Poland


      November 1943

      Yalta Conference


      Yalta Conference was designed to discuss post war Europe.
      Churchill believed that he could trust Stalin regarding free elections in Poland.

      Stacks Image 21159
      Churchill (UK)
      Roosevelt (USA)
      Stalin (USSR)

      Agreement
      Germany

      . disarmed
      . split into 4 zones
      . pay reparations

      Poland
      . free elections
      +
      . USSR to fight Japan
      . United Nations to replace League

      Tensions
      Poland
      . USSR wanted Poland's borders moved,
      wanting Polish land
      . USSR wanted Eastern European countries to be under their
      'sphere of influence'


      sentiment_very_satisfied
      February 1945

      Potsdam Conference


      Britain had a new prime Minister & USA a new president at the conference.
      Aim was to decide what to do with Germany, peace treaties & the
      consequences of war.

      Stacks Image 21185
      Attlee (UK)
      Truman(USA)
      Stalin (USSR)

      Agreement
      Germany

      . Nazi party banned
      . equipment taken as reparations
      . Germans to return from Eastern Europe
      Poland
      . borders agreed
      Vietnam
      . agreed to divide into North & South

      Tensions
      Poland
      . Polish leaders imprisoned & communists
      take over
      Atomic bomb
      . USA not tell Stalin about the atomic bomb


      July 1945

      Dropping of the atomic bombs


      Atomic bomb
      Considered a demonstration bombing to show the Japanese the power. Decided not to show to keep element of surprise.
      Targets were selected.
      Hoped after one atomic bomb drop Japan would surrender, therefore
      casualties less than invasion.
      No US deaths compared with up to 1 million if the US invaded Japan

      Stacks Image 21211
      Stacks Image 21208

      First atomic bomb
      Hiroshima - 6th August 1945
      Killed 90,000 - 150,000 +
      Many died months after 70% of
      the city destroyed
      Japanese govt. gave no
      public response about
      bomb & continued the war.

      Second atomic bomb
      Nagasaki - 9th August 1945
      40,000 - 80,000 killed
      Many died months after
      Damage restricted by hillsides around Nagasaki


      August 1945

      Long telegrams


      Long telegram from George Kennan
      US Embassy in Moscow
      USSR was building up its military for war against USA
      Stalin wanted to destroy capitalism

      sentiment_very_satisfied
      February 1946

      Iron Curtain Speech


      Churchill made a speech in the USA saying:
      Communism was against democracy & freedoms
      Stalin wanted to spread communism around the world

      Stalin replied saying:
      Churchill was trying to start a war
      Eastern Europe wanted communism

      5 March 1946

      Long telegram


      Novikov telegram from
      USSR Embassy in USA
      USA not into co-operation with USSR
      USA wanted to dominate the world
      USA was preparing for war against USSR

      sentiment_very_satisfied
      September 1946

      Germany


      Germany caused lots of disagreements
      Reparations:
      USA said USSR went against agreements
      Rebuilding Germany:
      USA wanted to rebuild Germany
      USSR wanted to keep Germany weak

      Democracy:
      USA wanted free & open elections in Germany
      USSR did not want free & open elections

      1946

      Truman Doctrine


      National Security Act 1947
      Established:
      . Department of Defence
      . National Security Council
      . Criminal Intelligence Agency (CIA)


      Containment
      USA giving money and military help to countries to fight communism
      Consequences:
      Truman said world was now divided:
      free = USA not free = USSR
      USA was now committed to Containment

      Domino Theory
      Greece & Turkey got money from the USA to fight communists.

      USA was scared if one country went communist its neighbour might go communist and then spread everywhere.


      Greece & Turkey
      . Support for Greece and Turkey to fight the communists after Britain could no longer afford to help


      1947

      Marshall Plan


      Stacks Image 21290

      USA helped Europe rebuild after the war
      USA sent:
      . grants & loans
      . equipment
      . goods

      USA got:
      . countries to buy their goods
      . chance to invest in Europe
      . allegiance from European countries so less likely to become communist

      Consequences
      . Western Europe not become communist
      . Europe start trading again - good for Europe & USA

      . Europe became divided between: East & West (Iron Curtain)
      . Stalin said Marshall Plan was to control W.Europe

      April 1948

      Berlin Blockade & Airlift


      Stacks Image 21313

      . USA / France / UK joined their zones to form one country
      . 23rd June allies introduced a new currency 'DeutscheMark'
      . 24th June Stalin ordered West Berlin to be cut-off - blockaded

      Allies had a choice: give up on West Berlin or supply it from the air.

      The Berlin Airlift began on 26th June 1948


      Airlift Facts
      Start: 26th June 1948
      Finish: 12 May 1949

      Needed to supply 2 million people with everything they needed to live.
      Around 277,000 flights
      Flight crews, not get out in Berlin - unloaded the planes then took off straight away.
      Only 12 crashes, killing 31

      2.3 million tons of supplies - 65% of cargo was coal
      Candy Bombers: Crews threw sweets out of the planes to children
      Soviets harassed the planes but did not risk shooting down a plane.


      26 June 1948

      Soviet control of Eastern Europe


      By 1949 these countries became communist controlled
      & came under the influence of Stalin:

      Poland . Czechoslovakia . East Germany . Hungary
      Romania . Bulgaria . Albania . Yugoslavia


      Buffer zone
      Eastern European countries to act as
      a military ‘buffer zone’ between Germany and the USSR.
      Power vacuum
      With the end of German rule many countries lacked government & law & order.
      Soviet 'sphere of influence'
      Stalin saw this as an opportunity to extend his influence over others - 'world communism'.
      Red Army
      With the Red Army in Eastern European countries Stalin knew there was little the West could do to get him out - except by using atomic bombs.

      sentiment_very_satisfied
      1949

      Division of Germany


      Germany was run by the occupying countries:
      USA, UK, France and USSR until 1949.
      Different countries had different ideas about what Germany should look like in the future

      USA
      . wanted Germany to be poor and mainly a farming country.
      UK
      . did not want to spend money on helping Germany
      USSR
      . took goods from Germany as compensation, and placed communists
      in control


      West Germany
      Federal Republic of Germany
      1948 elections, a government
      was formed
      20 September 1949 became FRG
      1949 elections: communists won 5.7%
      East Germany
      German Democratic Republic
      1946 elections: socialists won
      USSR controlled the socialists
      7 October 1949 became GDR
      1950 elections: socialists won 99%

      1949

      Arms Race


      USSR test first atomic bomb

      Stacks Image 21385

      1949

      Formation of NATO


      North Atlantic Treaty Organisation 1949
      Aim:
      . NATO fight only if attacked - attack one NATO country attack al
      Concerns:
      . USA was concerned about USSR in Eastern Europe and the Berlin Blockade
      NATO members
      . USA . Canada . UK . Belgium . Denmark . France . Iceland . Italy . Luxembourg . Netherlands . Norway . Portugal later ….. Greece, West Germany & Turkey

      NATO was generally ahead in the nuclear arms race but behind in numbers of sol


      1949

      Arms Race


      USSR detonates first hydrogen bomb


      1953

      Formation of Warsaw Pact


      Aim:
      . to co-ordinate a defensive alliance and protect themselves from the USA/NATO
      Concerns:
      . formation of NATO and the nuclear arming of Western countries


      Poland . Czechoslovakia . East Germany . Hungary
      Romania . Bulgaria . Albania . Yugoslavia


      1956

      Space Race


      USSR launched first space satellite into orbit around the earth called ‘Sputnik 1’. Transmitted a short wave signal ‘beep, beep’ for 22 days
      Stacks Image 21439

      October 1957

      Space Race


      USA forms NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) after the Soviets launch Sputnik.
      Formed to speed up the USA's space programme to compete with the USSR

      1958
    • Cold War crises, 1958 - 1970

      Berlin Wall


      1953: East Germans need permission to travel to West Berlin

      1953

      Berlin Wall


      1957: Leaving East Germany without permission = 3 years in prison

      1957

      Berlin Wall


      Stacks Image 21491

      1953: East Germans need permission to travel to West Berlin
      1957: Leaving East Germany without permission = 3 years in prison 1958: Soviet made several demands
      The West refused the demands & Khrushchev backed down
      1960: West Germany is bad for East German economy & it must be corrected according to East German leader
      1961: June Summit - Khrushchev tries to pressure the new US president, Kennedy, by insisting the Western powers leave Berlin. Kennedy pledges to support West Berlin
      1961: 15th June - East German leader Walter Ulbricht said he no intention of erecting a wall
      1961: 25th July - US President J.F. Kennedy spoke about the need to hold onto West Berlin and that NATO should react to any threat from the Soviets.
      1961: 12th August - East German leader orders a barricade to separate Berlin
      Barbed wire used followed by concrete wall.

      12 August 1961

      U2 Incident


      1. USA began flying the U2 spy plane without President Truman knowing about it
      2. President Truman banned flights when he found out about
      3. U2 flights started again in 1956 when President Eisenhower
      gave his permission. He wanted to find out about the nuclear missiles in Russia
      4. The U2 could fly at 73,000 feet at 460 knots but was not
      5. In May 1960 the USSR shot down a U2 spy plane and captured the pilot, Gary Powers
      Stacks Image 21507

      Paris Summit between USSR and USA collapsed as a result of the U2 incident

      May 1960

      Bay of Pigs


      Stacks Image 21524

      Invasion
      . CIA trained 1,400 exiles
      . invaded with support of bombers flown by Cubans
      . invasion easily stopped & 1,200 exiles were captured
      Consequences
      .
      USA: JFK hugely embarrassed - seen as a bully
      . Cuba: moved Castro closer to the USSR
      . USSR: supports Cuba, gains an ally (friend) in Central America

      1961

      Missiles on Cuba


      Khrushchev decides to place missiles on Cuba in 1962 for several reasons

      Central America
      . Supporting Cuba was seen as important
      in establishing an ally
      (friend) in Central
      America & try to limit
      or stop US influence
      Kennedy weak
      . Some saw Kennedy as a young inexperienced President who could be pushed around

      . He was seen as being weak after the unsuccessful Bay of Pigs operation

      Missiles in Turkey
      . US missiles in Turkey gave the US a strategic military advantage
      . Khrushchev hoped that his missiles in Cuba could be used to negotiate
      the removal of the Turkish missiles plus US position in Berlin


      1962

      Spy planes


      US spy planes spot observe Soviet personnel and weapons on Cuba

      August 1962

      Spy planes


      USA U2 spy plane takes photographs of the construction of nuclear missile launch site in Cuba.
      USSR ships seen in the Atlantic Ocean heading to Cuba, with what looked like missiles on board.

      14 October 1962

      Missile sites


      . By 16 October it had become clear that the Cubans were allowing the Soviets to establish missile sites on the island
      . Meeting of EX COM where President Kennedy was warned the missile sites could be operational by the end of October
      . Kennedy given choices as what to do
      Stacks Image 21593

      16 October 1962

      Quarantine


      . Kennedy does a TV address to the American public announcing that there is proof that the Soviets have missiles on Cuba
      . Kennedy informs the Americans and the worlds that he is imposing a quarantine on Cuba - Soviet ships carrying missiles will be turned back
      Stacks Image 21609

      22 October 1962

      Khrushschev's response


      Khrushchev's response was to ignore the blockade & did not admit to having
      missiles on Cuba. It said it was merely helping Cuba defend itself & the USA was
      taking the world to war.

      23 October 1962

      Blockade works


      Stacks Image 21634

      Soviet ships stop and turn around at the blockade line, except one carrying oil

      24 October 1962

      Khrushchev's first 'letter'


      Khrushchev sent a letter saying that the USSR would remove the missiles if:
      USA stopped the blockade & USA promise not to invade Cuba in the future

      26 October 1962

      Khrushchev's second 'letter'


      Khrushchev second letter adds a demand that US missiles should be removed from
      Turkey. A U2 spy plane is shot down & JFK is pushed to retaliate. USA agree to first
      letter demands then JFK sends a secret message to Khrushchev agreeing to remove
      Turkey missiles.

      27 October 1962

      Removal of missiles


      Removal of missiles from Cuba agreed by Khrushchev

      28 October 1962

      Dubcek's Action Programme


      Dubcek
      . Action Programme is launched
      Stacks Image 21683

      April 1968

      Censorship abolished


      Censorship was abolished & political prisoners freed.
      People demanded more than Dubcek’s Action Programme.
      Soviet forces stay in Czech after Warsaw Pact exercises.

      June 1968

      Soviet's react


      Stacks Image 21708

      Soviet troops at the Czech border.
      Warsaw Pact meets to discuss situation in Czech. &
      warn leaders

      July 1968

      Soviet's take action


      Stacks Image 21722

      . Dubcek speech said there was no going back.
      . Warsaw Pact agreed to stop ‘anti-socialist forces’ & backed the Brezhnev Doctrine

      20 August Soviet & Warsaw Pact forces invade Czech
      21 August Dubcek arrested & flown to Moscow & signed Moscow Protocol (Soviet troops to stay
      in Czech)
      Workers & students confronted invading troops.
      700 - 1000 Czechs were killed
      September/October
      70,000 plus fled from Czech
      New govt formed headed by
      Husak.

      August 1968

      New government formed


      . 70,000 plus fled from Czech
      . New govt formed headed by Husak.

      September - October 1968

      Hotline


      Kennedy & Brezhnev
      Set up a telephone ‘hotline’ after the Cuban Missile Crisis which nearly led to a nuclear war.
      Messages sent by telegraph were slow and liable to be misinterpreted.
      The USA said of the hotline that it will “help reduce the risk of war occurring by accident or miscalculation.”

      August 1963

      Limited Test Ban Treaty


      Limited Test Ban Treaty 1963
      USA, USSR & GB signed the test ban in Moscow.
      France& China refused tosign.

      The ban ‘prohibited the testing of nuclear weapons in outer space, underwater or in the atmosphere.’

      1963

      Outer Space Nuclear Treaty 1967


      Outer Space Nuclear Treaty 1967
      . USA, USSR & GB signed the treaty (+100 others after ’67).
      . Bans nuclear weapons being used in space

      1967

      Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons 1968


      Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons 1968
      Non-nuclear-weapon states agree never to have nuclear weapons and the nuclear-weapon states agree to share the benefits of peaceful nuclear technology and to aim for nuclear disarmament and the ultimate

      1968
    • The end of the Cold War, 1970–91

      US-China relations


      Stacks Image 21795

      Nixon visited Mao in China in February in 1972, the first US president to go to communist China.
      The US dropped its opposition to China joining the United Nations.

      1972

      SALT I



      Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) 1972
      Talks about limiting weapons began in 1969, with the treaty
      signed in Moscow: The treaty:the arms race.
      . limited the number of launching missile sites to two per side
      . no more ICBM/SLBMS built for 5 years
      . Other things decided at the summit:
      . Further talks for another Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty
      . Brezhnev agreed to allow Jews to emigrate
      , Signed an agreement to work together in space
      . Co-operate on environmental protection

      1972

      Helsinki Accords


      Stacks Image 21823

      European Security Conference
      Signed Helsinki Accords:
      . security: European borders agreed inc. West/East Germany
      . human rights: respect human rights & right to travel between countries
      . co-operation: better links through trade & cultural visits
      BUT
      . human rights:
      no improvement in USSR & E.Europe. Brezhnev said it was not others business. Critics of communism were still harshly treated.
      . rivalry: continued around the world as the superpowers looked to extend their influence

      1973-1975

      Arms talks


      Stacks Image 21837

      Communique
      Brezhnev and Ford sign a joint communique on limiting strategic offensive arms and establishing the foundations for SALT II, known as the Vladivostok Agreements.

      November 1974

      SALT II


      Stacks Image 21851

      Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty
      SALT II (1975-1979): further limits but stopped because of Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
      . joint space mission: shook hands in space
      . trade links: more trade between West & East
      BUT
      . conventional forces: no agreement to reduce forces, USSR wanted larger army
      . SALT II: never really happened

      1979

      Soviet invasion of Afghanistan


      Stacks Image 21865

      Soviet invasion
      Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan in December 1979. The Soviets entered Afghanistan to support the communist led government - which had little support in the country.

      1979

      Boycott of Moscow Olympics


      Afghanistan invasion
      In protest the USA boycotted the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow.
      Communist countries then boycotted the LA Games in 1984
      Stacks Image 21881

      Summer 1980

      'Star Wars' Defence Plan


      Ronald Reagan
      Became in US President. He was very anti communist & pro containment.
      Started ‘Star Wars’ programme for lasers to hit missiles from space.
      Stacks Image 21897

      March 1983

      Gorbachev comes to power


      Stacks Image 21916
      Stacks Image 21913
      Mikhail Gorbachev
      Becames the leader in the USSR and introduces:
      Glasnost:
      . translates to ‘openness’
      . more justice less corruption
      . open to more debate about economy & management of industry
      . open to more freedoms of speech
      . multi candidates (communists) in elections

      Perestroika:
      . restructuring of the economic & political system
      . less control of economy by communists
      . have more investment from the West
      . wanted economy to be more efficient

      March 1985

      Geneva Summit


      Stacks Image 21929

      Reagan & Gorbachev discussed a variety of issues, from SDI to human rights. No agreements but laid the foundation for further talks.

      November 1985

      Reykjavik Summit


      Stacks Image 21943

      Gorbachev & Reagan discussed getting rid of all ballistic missiles. Agreement was close, but the USA would not give up research & development on SDI. Without that there was no agreement form the USSR. But it showed that both leaders were willing to discuss serious arms reduction.

      October 1986

      Washington Summit


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      Gorbachev & Reagan discussed a range of issues including Afghanistan, Central America, South Africa & chemical weapons. Agreement on limiting intermediate range nuclear missiles.

      December 1987

      Gorbachev's speech to the UN


      Gorbachev announced huge military reductions in Europe & on Chinese border. Decision was unilateral and inc. 500,000 soldiers.
      Soviet troops were withdrawn from Eastern European countries.

      December 1988

      Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan


      Soviet power was shown to be limited. It become to USSR what Vietnam was to the USA. Soviets worried that anti Soviet feeling would spread across Muslim population in USSR.

      1989

      Berlin Wall comes down


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      Sections of the Berlin Wall were torn down as the border between East and West Germany was opened.
      Anti government protests had spread across Eastern Europe.

      9 November 1989

      Eastern Europe elections



      . Protests across Eastern European countries in November and December 1989
      . Free elections took place in 1990

      November 1989

      Break-up of the USSR


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      . The Baltic states, Latvia, Estonia & Lithuania & Azerbaijan wanted independence from the USSR, Gorbachev refused & sent in troops
      . In Russia Boris Yeltsin became the leader & called for the end of the USSR & for the republics to become independent
      . Hard-line communists in Russia were shocked at events, they led a coup & imprisoned Gorbachev in his holiday home in the Crimea
      . Yeltsin led demonstrations against the coup & for the reforms
      . Yeltsin ended the Soviet Communist Party & the USSR in Dec 1991
      . Gorbachev resigned as President of the USSR (there was no USSR)


      1990

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